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In the last five years, the international profile of European motorsports, particularly Formula One, has skyrocketed. However, with its rising popularity follows a growing critique. Where are the women in Formula One? Other racing series like NASCAR and IndyCar can boast numerous women racers, but F1 remains dominated by a grid of twenty men. The series has tried to respond, highlighting women like Bernie Collins – former Red Bull Racing Strategy Engineer and current analyst for Sky Sports. Indeed, in 2023, Jessica Hawkins became the first female F1 test-driver in five years since Tatiana Calderon in 2018. 2023 is also the inaugural season of the all-women's F1 Academy, directed by Susie Wolff, who herself made history when she participated in a free practice session for Williams Racing. The Academy started racing this year with an all-female grid of drivers supported by the 10 major F1 teams. It is a huge step in the development of women’s motor sports, and it could lead to a woman re-joining the grid for the first time since 1992 when Giovanna Amati tried and failed to qualify for three races in a row. Yet many new fans have no idea that women ever raced in Formula One at all. History has forgotten the women who blazed new paths in motorsports. This article remembers one of those women, Lella Lombardi who in 1975 became the first and only woman to ever score points in a Formula One Grand Prix. Lella’s story has always stood out to me. Maybe it’s because she was, in today’s terms, queer, supported throughout her career by her partner, Fiorenza. Maybe it’s because the era she raced in was so incredibly dangerous, with drivers literally risking their lives every race for the thrill of speed. Maybe it’s because scoring points is such an incredible accomplishment in F1, and Lella did it in the second race she qualified for! There are men who have raced for years without ever reaching this achievement which used to come from placing within the top six of a race. There are undoubtedly other stories to tell – that of Maria Teresea De Fillippis, the first woman to drive in F1 in 1958, and Desiré Wilson, the first woman to win a Formula One event in the British Aurora Series in 1980. All of these women faced the same question Lella did: what is your point? Even after De Fillippis’s trailblazing races, the world of motorsports was sure a woman could not find any real success in racing, so why even try? What was the purpose of pouring money into women pilots? Lella answered - her point was to prove that women could not only enter the world of motorsports, but succeed. Lella’s name deserves to be remembered for consistently flouting social scripts to achieve something no woman has since. Chasing a Dream Lella Lombardi’s unique career in Formula One starts with her upbringing. F1 has never been a cheap sport, it requires either immense personal wealth or sponsorships to build a career. As such, most drivers have historically come from privileged backgrounds, but Lella did not have this advantage. Lella was born Maria Grazia Lombardi on March 14th, 1941. Her parents were butchers from the village of Frugarolo, Italy, and she spent much of her childhood working at her family’s shop. The Lombardi family did not own a family car and neither of Lella’s parents drove in her youth. It was only when Lella was injured in a handball game as a young teenager that she first rode in a car when her coach took her to the local hospital. She became enraptured by driving and after this saved money to pay for lessons and practiced in any vehicle she could. She even convinced her parents to let her drive the business delivery van! Eventually with the help of her older brother, Lella bought a car of her own and immediately started looking for racing opportunities. But being a woman trying to break into the boys’ club of motorsport was no easy feat. Lella would have to rely on her male connections to support her early career. Early on, Lella was introduced to a rally car pilot who she impressed with her sheer determination to race. He took Lella onto his team, assigning her menial tasks like timing laps and changing tires. But Lella could not be dissuaded, eventually convincing him to let her become his navigator and then his co-pilot before finally piloting a race herself. Having worked her way up the ranks, Lella found quick success in rally racing, and soon she was setting her sights on single seaters. Single seaters are a different type of car, lower to the ground, exposed, and much more rigid, in turn requiring a different style of racing. There is no one there with the pilot, just the driver and the hunk of metal under them careening around corners, knowing that if they misjudge by a centimeter, it could mean not only the end of their race, but their lives. It was and remains today, for many, the pinnacle of motorsport. Lella knew the increased risk of single seaters, just like she would have known that finding success in these series would be even more of a challenge than getting her start in rally racing. One of the reasons Lella felt energized to enter the world of single seaters was she had the support of her partner, Fiorenza. While little is publicly known about the foundation of the women’s relationship, Fiorenza was clearly very supportive of her partner’s career. Indeed, Fiorenza’s emotional and financial support was integral to Lella’s start in single-seaters, helping her to enter the Formula 875-Monza series in 1968. This was one of the many junior Formula series Lella would work her way through. In 1970, Lella entered and came in third in the Italian Formula Ford Championship while simultaneously competing in the smaller Trofeo Italiano Formula 850 series. The next year, Lella entered Formula Three, competing across three seasons in various cars. The victory that propelled Lella to dedicate herself to Formula One success, however, came in 1973 when she raced in and won the first ever Italian Ford Escort Mexico Challenge. This was a celebrity racing series, and it brought Lella to the attention of many big names in the racing world. Lella had once again proven herself worthy to the right people. Proving a Point In 1974, Lella’s single seater career took off. She tested a Formula One car for Jackie Epstein, a man who ran several successful racing teams, and impressed him enough to gain a place on Fransisco Mir’s US F5000 team. Her teammate in this series was future 1976 F1 champion James Hunt, remembered today for his fierce rivalry with Niki Lauda. Race after race, Lella consistently matched the future star. After months of stellar results, Lella made the jump into Formula One for the first time. Driving a car loaned from Bernie Eccelstone, owner of the Brabham racing team, Lella entered the British GP at Brands Hatch in July driving for Hexagon of Highgate. Unsurprisingly, Eccelstone had little interest in lending his opponents a competitive car, and Lella struggled to match the rest of the field’s pace with her engine’s minimal power. In the end, it was a driveshaft malfunction that dashed her dreams of qualifying. She missed out on a racing position by just .9 seconds. Lella was not given another opportunity in F1 that year. However, she would finish fifth in the 1974 US F5000 series. Lella was persistent, continuing to make inroads in the racing world. Her enthusiasm for the sport was clear, and she had slowly gained the respect of many on the grid. Interviews from her time as a F1 driver give insight into why so many loved Lella Lombardi on and off track. When asked by a Swedish journalist if she was “ just a nice doll in this sport?” she responded by saying, “No, No, for sure not me. You could judge me like this, but I really care to be seen as a pilot and not as a doll.” Lella simply refused to take any flack about her gender, reminding everyone that she was on track as a racing driver who happened to be a woman, not the other way around. Her confidence and results impressed many, and, in the winter of 1974, she charmed one of the biggest bankrollers in the racing world with her skills, knowledge, and determination. Count Vittorio Zanon was known for financially supporting the careers of many successful drivers including Ronnie Peterson and Michele Albereto. Businessmen like Zanon were essential for drivers like Lella who did not come from independent means. If you could not secure stable sponsorship, your career could not be sustained. Lella knew this, yet, in the end it was a woman who was central to securing Lella a permanent seat in F1. Jean Mosely, the wife of March’s owner Max Mosely, had been pestering her husband for months to consider Lella, after Lella impressed her with her Brands Hatch drive. After watching Lella race and meeting the driver in person, Mosley folded. By the start of the 1975 season, Lella was signed to the March Formula One team. In South Africa at the third race of the 1975 season Lella finally qualified for her first Formula One race, becoming the second woman after De Fillippis to do so. The competition Lella faced on track was fierce. Ferrari’s rising star Niki Lauda would go on to win his first of three world championships that year after overcoming the challenge of 1974 world champion Emerson Fittipaldi. Lella’s former teammate James Hunt had also joined the F1 grid. But unlike Lauda and Fittipaldi who were part of large and well-funded racing teams, the March F1 team had been facing financial difficulties since the early 1970s. As a result, the team could not afford to produce new F1 cars, so they started racing modified Formula Two cars. Lella’s car could not match the power or reliability of Lauda’s Ferrari or Fittipaldi’s McLaren. This disadvantage was clear in South Africa when Lella suffered a fuel system break, forcing her to retire in the twenty-third lap of the race. Similarly, her teammate, Vittorio Brambilla, retired in the sixteenth lap due to overheating. But Lella wasn’t done making history, quickly turning her sights to the next race weekend where she did what no woman had done before or has done since. The weekend of the 1975 Spanish Grand Prix started well. Lella was bringing a brand-new car to the track, a March 751–Ford she obtained with funds from Zanon’s Lavazza sponsorship. Though she qualified, starting 24th at the back of the grid certainly wasn’t what she was hoping for in her new outfit. What’s more, during qualifying the drivers noticed guardrails around the circuit were broken, and after qualifying, they agreed in a joint press conference that they would not race unless this was fixed. Engineers and mechanics from across the grid pitched into the effort which finished just before the race’s start. But not all the rails were properly checked before the race got underway. Nonetheless, Lella lined up on the grid at Montjuïc Park on the 21st of April 1975 ready to race. From the start, there was chaos on track. Four drivers retired after an opening lap accident caused by Lella’s teammate Brambillo. Mechanical failures and accidents continued to occur throughout the race and by the 25th lap only 8 of the starting 25 drivers remained on track. Lella drove incredibly well in what was one of the toughest races of the season, managing to avoid the fallout from each accident as she made her way up the grid. What happened next is the reason most people remember the 1975 Spanish Grand Prix. In the 26th lap of the race, Rolf Stommelen’s rear wing detached from his chassis. The car ricocheted off a barrier, leaving it in the middle of the track just as Carlos Pace rounded the corner. Pace hit Stommelen’s car with enough force to launch it over the guardrail on the other side of the track and into a crowd of spectators. Meanwhile, the race coordinators were in chaos, failing to stop the cars for another five laps while they tried to get a handle on the situation. In the end, four spectators were left dead and Stommelen suffered serious injuries. It still stands as a stark reminder of the dangers of motor racing. While the attention paid to such a tragedy is undoubtedly justified, what has unfortunately been lost in the story of that fateful day is what Lella Lombardi achieved. When the race directors finally ended the Grand Prix, Lella had secured sixth place. She became the only woman to score points in a Formula One event. Because the race ended before full race distance but with over 2/3rds of the event completed, half points were awarded. While the disastrous race end created significant controversy over the race results, Lella still walked away with half a point in the driver’s championship. Lella completed the rest of the 1975 season with March. Though she did not manage to score points again, she came exceedingly close, finishing 7th at the Nürburgring track in Germany. This result was perhaps even more impressive than her race in Spain, as she picked up a puncture early in the race. Lella fought her car lap after lap just to stay on track, and she still managed to almost score points again! Towards the end of the season, Lella was growing increasingly frustrated with the March team. She was consistently complaining about the car’s handling, struggling with understeer that made navigating high-speed corners difficult. Max Mosely later admitted to ignoring Lella’s concerns despite knowing the car was difficult to drive, having little interest in advancing her career. Finally, after consistently struggling to find adequate race pace, the team stripped back Lella’s March to find that one of the rear bulkheads had cracked earlier in the season. Lella could have easily walked away from the series. She had been consistently mistreated by her teams, and she had other racing opportunities in sportscar series. Her teammate at Le Mans, Marie-Claude Beaumont, remembers Lella telling her in 1975 that “Formula 1 was very important for her and her friend Fiorenza. She would just say to me, ‘Marie, I have to do Formula 1.’” Lella had no interest in leaving after fighting so hard for her dream, and with the support of her partner, she felt she had more to give. So, at the start of 1976, Lella decided to abandon the March team. Lella moved to Williams Racing in 1976 which looked like a promising decision on paper. While Williams was still a relatively small team, they had recently signed a lucrative new funding partner, which though short-lived, would make them much talked about going into the season. But she found little luck in 1976. On her debut Williams drive at the United States Grand Prix, she faced ignition problems that forced her to drop out of the race before the start. Ever determined, Lella tried to race her teammate, Jacques Latiffe’s Williams, as Latiffe also dropped out of the race with an eye infection. However, Latiffe was much shorter than Lella who was too tall to fit into his cockpit. Lella then failed to qualify in the next two races, and after the Brazilian Grand Prix, the team dropped her for Ronnie Peterson, a man with multiple grand prix victories. Desperate not to lose the opportunity she worked so hard for, Lella tried one last time to race in F1 for team RAM. Her car, however, was a year older than the rest of the fields, and she would only qualify for one grand prix that year where she finished far off the pace in 12th. By the end of 1976, Lella was exhausted after scraping and clawing for over three years just to drive some of the worst cars on the grid. At the end of 1976, she exited the series to look for opportunities elsewhere. Remembering Lella The end of Lella’s F1 career was far from the end of her racing career, as she moved into sportscar racing. Indeed, outside the world of Formula One, Lella found herself interacting with more and more female racing drivers. She raced in Le Mans with teammate Marie-Claude Beaumont, though a fuel issue forced them to retire in the race’s eighth hour. She made a singular NASCAR appearance, driving alongside Christine Becker and Janet Guthrie in the 1977 Daytona Firecracker 400. Lella would team up with Becker again at the 24 Hours of Daytona that same year, but the team would crash out in the 78th lap. They would finish Le Mans that year together in 11th, an impressive feat considering an electrical problem delayed their start. It would be Lella’s best result in any of the 24 hours races she competed in. Lella would continue to alternate between racing sports cars and touring cars for the next ten years, securing several impressive results. She won the 6 Hours of Mugello with teammate Giorgio Francia and pickied up multiple podium finishes. In the late 1980s, Lella started to struggle with her health and found herself unable to race. Lella was eventually diagnosed with breast cancer. Still, she would not walk away from motorsport, starting “Lella Lombardi Motorsport”, a touring-car team. Her niece remembers that Lella was incredibly happy during this time, thrilled to have a team of her own despite her worsening illness. She lived long enough to see them test their first touring car, a Ford Sierra RS 500 Cosworth. She passed away just after her 50th birthday on the 3rd of March 1992 in Milan, Italy. Lella Lombardi left behind a legacy that is hard to comprehend. Beyond her incredible racing achievements, she opened the doors for even more women in motorsport. What’s more, throughout her career she lived unabashedly as herself, shattering gendered stereotypes along the way. She kept her hair short and always travelled with her partner Fiorenza, living quite openly as a lesbian despite never publicly pronouncing her sexuality. When asked in a 1975 interview why she chose motorsport despite being a girl, Lella replied simply “Because I love it! I love motoring, I love racing cars. I love the feeling of driving.” Lella did not let anything stand in the way of that love. She fought tooth and nail for every opportunity, every start, every seat at the table. She knew she was not welcome, yet her skill and determination slowly impressed driver after driver, businessman after businessman, until she earned the racing community’s respect. She should be remembered for her spirit, her fortitude, and her love for the sport she dedicated her life to. Lella had a point to prove: to show everyone women could find success in F1, and she did so spectacularly. Her legacy lives on in the women today who continue to fight for their chance to add their name next to Lella’s in the history of motorsport. Further Reading 2023. "1975 F1 World Championship." MotorSport Magazine. Accessed 10 10, 2023. https://www.motorsportmagazine.com/database/championships/1975-f1-world-championship/. Dietrich, Nanni. n.d. "Lella Lombardi: 1941-1992." Motorsport Memorial. Accessed 10 10, 2023. http://www.motorsportmemorial.org/LWFWIW/focusLWFWIW.php?db=LWF&db2=ms&n=273. 2020. Beyond Driven. Directed by Riyaana Hartley and Vincent Tran. Performed by Giovanni Amati, et al. Jenkins, Aimée. 2023. "The Legacy of lella Lombardi." Along the Racing Line. 06 01. Accessed 10 10, 2023. https://www.alongtheracingline.com/the-legacy-of-lella-lombardi/. n.d. "March." ESPN. Accessed 10 10, 2023. http://en.espn.co.uk/march/motorsport/team/375.html#Profile. Resteck, Hilary, and Casey Schuster. n.d. "Lella Lombardi." The Henry Ford Women in the Winner Circle Foundation. Accessed 10 10, 2023. https://ophelia.sdsu.edu:8443/henryford_org/09-09-2013/exhibits/racing/wiwc/bios/trailblazers/LellaLombardi.pdf. Tremayne, David. 2022. "Trailblazing Racer Lella Lombardi Remembered, 30 Years On From Her Death ." Formula1. March 03. Accessed 10 10, 2023. https://www.formula1.com/en/latest/article.trailblazing-racer-lella-lombardi-remembered-30-years-on-from-her-death.6zz9pupcxc97yy5SEL1kkR.html. 2023. "Williams." MotorSport Magazine. Accessed 10 10, 2023. https://www.motorsportmagazine.com/database/teams/williams/.

The mystique of the redhead is well documented throughout the ages , dating back to biblical times. The queen of Hell, Lilith, was thought to be a redhead, and the mythological women of Greek stories like Cassandra and Persephone have been depicted with this hair colour, indicating a pattern across centuries of troubled or troubling women sharing a common feature of red hair. Hair gives women agency, but only insofar as it is linked to appearance, whether judged as beautiful or ugly according to beauty standards throughout history. It is associated with the cisgendered female Other, and this strength and beauty has much to be admired but also feared. Red hair can be traced through beauty trends made visible by literature, historical records, and art. Cleopatra was presumed to have reddened her hair using henna, a cosmetic tool favoured by the Ancient Egyptians, whereas in Japanese culture an 1896 article suggested that red hair brought bad luck, and that ‘he or she must not wash her hair on the day of horse when hair would turn red, an evil turn of events (Volker 1975, 7). Examples of famous women such as Boudica, Elizabeth I, and Moira Shearer indicate no lack of redheaded women in popular history, but their shared feature of red hair is often felt to be a problem (Figure One). Its sheer rarity, with less than 2% of the global population considered as natural redheads may justify such claims of uniqueness and fascination, but the deep-rooted and dangerous appeal of red in all its literary and historical forms implies an otherness which is historically feared in masculine perspectives of history. The problematic of red hair is its colour, and this perceived abnormality has been weaponised into a vilification of women. It is difficult to define the archetype of the redhead in history as inherently positive or negative, as famous figures like Elizabeth I created a fashion of having red hair, whilst Anne Shirley in Anne of Green Gables perceives her red hair as ugly and is bullied for having ‘carrots’ for hair. The devilish allusions to fire and sin seem too straightforward in answer to the often -unfair stereotyping of scarlet haired women throughout history, but the fact of natural red hair as a rare quality fosters this nature of suspicion across the real and fiction women I am discussing (Montgomery 154). The colour red, ginger, or strawberry blond does ‘stand out’ in its vibrancy, and where women have historically been taught modesty, the dangerous power of hair was thought to beguile and disturb male onlookers. My study reflects on iconic women across literature, art and mythology, who can be grouped together as outsiders or unique characters partially due to their red hair and the patriarchal fears that are intrinsically linked with being a redhead. Religious lore provides one source for the fear of red hair, as records from the European witch trials spanning from the 15th to 18th century reveal that it was widely believed that simply having red hair could invoke the devil. Wendy Cooper’s Social History of Hair identifies the duplicitous Judas as one origin of this idea, as the religious damnation of this man as disloyal and untrustworthy is tied to his red hair (Cooper 1971, p.75). The power of religious symbols is connected to persecution of redheads, and in relation to the Spanish inquisition, the immoral allusions of red hair and fear of heresy came hand in hand (Cooper). In A Vindication of the Redhead , Brenda Ayres affirms that ‘The association of red hair with Satan, devils, monsters, murderers, villains, seductive women, Jews, and other personages of presumed infamy continues to be propagated through literature and other media today’ (21 ). Red hair, then, is doubly embedded in the cultural myths of hair and western beauty standards as well as religious ideas of sin and seduction, especially due to the primal colour associated with temper, desire, and violence. Ayres equally discusses the biblical idea of sexual temptation associated with hair, and how historically women have been punished for their perceived sexuality by having their hair cut off. The Grimm Brothers’ Rapunzel and Fantine from Les Misérables are two important cultural examples, when their hair is forcefully cut, they both lose power and become disposable (Figure Two). Joan of Arc is a counterpoint to these women; although suffering an equally tragic fate, the martyr chose to cut her hair as a form of disguise. All of these cultural references exemplify the equivocal truth that long hair can be a mark of beauty but also objectification. Long flowing hair presents a threat to male power due to its distracting ‘allure’, and feminist history emphasises the important context behind the mythologization of hair. It can be used as a way to vilify women, as a tradeable product of femininity that someone like Fantine uses very literally to make money. Barbara G Walker notes the popular myth of ‘prophetic priestesses or witches, who operated with unbound hair on the theory that their tresses could control the spirit world’ (Walker 1996, p.368). Hair, in magical terms, was a source of power, so adding the dimension of red hair increased the strength of these women. There is a sense of both monetary value but also emasculation at play with red hair, so the mythology of red headed women as imbued with supernatural power is a means to explain the oxymoron of patriarchal beauty ideals and sinfulness that they embody. We can thus see a trend emerging from the fear of dissent surrounding red hair that then transposes to a visual figuration of red hair as ever seductive yet valuable. Thus, if hair studies reveal a gendered perception of red hair, how can we account for the diverse depictions of women thought to have or often visualised with ginger hair? It can be attributed to changes in beauty standards, as the trend in depictions of ‘devilish’ female characters in religious cultures such as Eve and Lilith was replaced by an adoration of redheaded women in the Pre-Raphaelite muses Fanny Cornforth and Elizabeth Siddal and the mythological women they incarnated. Feared and revered , the unanimous agreement is that red hair attracts attention, why is why I have chosen to look at key examples of the male gaze at work in shaping perceptions of redhaired women and how these can be reconstructed. Historically, naturally occurring red hair has been found primarily in European countries, so the majority of artwork and accounts of red hair are associated with white Western women. This is not to say that red hair does not exist in all parts of the world, and indeed it is thought that Cleopatra may have had red hair. Negative criticism of red hair has been associated with antisemitism, and the very fact that it is a ‘minority attribute’ indicates historic fear and alienation in pictorial depictions of Jewish people (Mellinkoff 202). Vindictive histories of russet haired women focus on the colour itself as a rarity and a warning symbol, with the most common being devilish associations. The great Iceni queen Boudica is exemplary of often prejudiced accounts of powerful redheaded women, and her physical appearance plays a deciding factor in male historian’s accounts (Figure Three). She was described by the monk Gildas in the sixth century as 'the treacherous lioness' and her followers 'crafty foxes,' when both animals are known for their red hair (Gildas 540, 21, in Gibson 92). Ancient Roman historian Cassius Dio elaborates that ‘in stature she was very tall, in appearance most terrifying, in the glance of her eye most fierce, and her voice was harsh; a great mass of the tawniest hair fell to her hips’. Her ‘tawny’ hair was thought to be red, and here her physically dominating appearance is measured by fear and awe. Whilst this pattern of redheads may be a coincidence, their history of literary and visual representations reflects beauty standards of idealism and male anxiety, as Dio’s account is yet another shaped by the male gaze. Red hair, from the earliest Greek myths and biblical tales, seek to emphasise a woman’s otherness or demonic qualities, whereby a powerful or powerless woman could be vilified by the fact of having distinctive red hair. Early religious accounts associate red, and thus redheads, with Satan, and the Babylonian Talmud (a central text of study in Judaism) describes Lilith, the first wife of Adam, as a redhead (Ayres 28). The biblical image of Lilith as a demonic woman who disobeyed traditional ideas of motherhood and female sexuality indicates that her unruliness is equitable with her hair colour. The figuration of both Lilith and Judas as having fiery hair must then symbolise their dissidence and infallible branding as sinful in certain religious interpretations. In the Babylonian Talmud (c.500), Lilith is scarcely mentioned but is described with long hair and is thought to have been banished from the garden of Eden for not following Adam’s rule and then becoming the Mother of Hell (British Library). The 'Lady Lilith' painting by Dante Gabriel Rossetti (1867) is perhaps the most famous incarnation of Lilith, and her distinctive long red hair adds to her femme fatale characterisation (Figure Four). Rosetti’s choice to use his mistress Fanny Cornforth as the model is telling of the seductive power that is often emphasised by redheaded characters. The demonic idea of Lilith is translated into a more formal tradition in the Pre-Raphaelite movement, where Lilith is shown in an intimate setting, importantly combing her hair. Other details include a red bracelet and a poppy, which can symbolise death, drawing the viewer’s attention to red as a key motif in this painting. For Rossetti, and indeed Victorian viewers, it is unclear whether red hair can be judged as a beauty ideal, as Roach notes that this hair colour has ‘struck every emotion in our hearts, from vehement terror to unthrottled lust, since the hue first appeared in humankind’ (Roach 3). Lilith is a prime example of how literature dictated by men can influence cultural myths of red hair, which goes on to include Princess Salome and Greek myths such as Cassandra and Persephone, who are also figured with red hair (Figures Five and Six). Cassandra (left) and Persephone (right) suffered alienation and tragedy all whilst having red hair in artistic depictions, and the flaming locks of Cassandra echo the ruined city behind her. Their fates are not comparable to their hair colour, of course, but there is a shared sense of foreboding in the artists’ choice to depict these tragic heroines with red hair. Botticelli’s iconic ‘The Birth of Venus’ painting also leans into the femme fatale trope of Greek mythology, as the love goddess Venus’s long wavy tresses emphasise her ideal femininity, and a noticeable tawny strawberry blonde colour (Figure Seven). It seems then that the common stereotyping of redheads as fiery and passionate are found in these Greek goddesses, who have been viewed in artistic renderings as passionate yet idealised redheads. It is difficult to define the archetype of the redhead in history as inherently positive or negative, as famous figures like Elizabeth I created a fashion of having red hair, whilst Anne perceives her red hair as ugly and is bullied for having ‘carrots’ for hair. The devilish allusions to fire and sin seem too straightforward in answer to the often -unfair stereotyping of scarlet haired women throughout history , but the fact of natural red hair as a rare quality fosters this nature of suspicion across the real and fiction women I am discussing (Montgomery 154). The colour red, ginger, or strawberry blond does ‘stand out’ in its vibrancy, and where women have historically been taught modesty, the dangerous power of hair was thought to beguile and disturb male onlookers. My study reflects on iconic women across literature, art and mythology, who can be grouped together as outsiders or unique characters partially due to their red hair and the patriarchal fears that are intrinsically linked with being a redhead. Continuing in history, a distinctive shift in the correlation between redheads and beauty standards is visible in Queen Elizabeth I. Her portraiture created a cult of royal authority and established her strength and regal power as a queen, making her red hair famous. As an influencer of national fashions and beauty, many women aspired to Queen Elizabeth’s look, including her red hair. Her most vibrant ‘Rainbow Portrait’ shows her late in her reign but still figured as an eternal young woman, her hair perfectly curled and bejewelled (Figure Eight). She controlled the circulation of her image, and so this portrait is indicative of her desire to publicly maintain her features to show the constancy of her power. Elizabeth I’s patronage of artists created a cult of imagery around the queen which maintained her regal status of the Virgin Queen, and her distinctive red hair remained a key feature of her portraiture. Her red hair remained the same hue and thickness throughout her life, causing one to question the truthfulness of the artist’s brush. What is clear is that the image of the young, omnipotent queen was paramount and the power of beauty standards reigned over the Queen herself to maintain the Gloriana image. During that time, Ayres notes that ‘Titian was famous for painting redheads. In fact, the hair color—a “golden red-brown”—had become so popular in Venice that women dyed their hair that color.’ (Roach 68, in Ayres 11). The term ‘Titian red’ has become widespread due to his common use of the colour, which was distinctive to his style, and suggests an increase in appreciation for redheads, certainly aided by its visibility in portraiture and presentation as both beautiful and powerful in the case of Queen Elizabeth I. These visual signifiers of auburn hair as ethereal and the highest pinnacle of beauty denote an appreciation that is interlinked with concepts of female power and royalty. The regal power of Elizabeth I exponentially increased the popularity of red hair and may have elevated it from negative cultural prejudices. Titian’s fixation on red hair and his own shade of red indicates this widespread visual culture of redheads which confronted women of the epoque, casting beauty and a regal aura on the female models (Figure Nine). The popularity of trends and the rise and fall of perceived beauty of redheads can then be traced in literary depictions, but a common feature is that often these women are powerful, mystically so, and their beauty is often replaced by patriarchal fear, or in Queen Elizabeth I’s case, a cult of power. Paintings of redheads put Western beauty on a pedestal and share myths of red hair across fictional and historical women that they depict. Elizabeth I created a popular image of herself which brought her flaming locks into prominence, associating her hair with both her femininity and strength, perhaps trading into the fiery stereotype as her forte as a speech maker and long ruling monarch relied on public support. When imagining paintings of redheads, the Pre-Raphaelites are central to visual culture, as the Brotherhood (and Sisterhood), founded in 1848, is recognizable in art movements for the prominence of red-haired female subjects in various classical and Victorian settings. The redheaded model is common among their depictions of so called dangerous and tragic women such as Ophelia and the Lady of Shalott, who are often to be feared and safely contained in the canvas of a painting. Elizabeth Siddal is a key example of how red hair situated women as the muse and model for the male artist rather than artists in their own right. Often figured as dangerous and beautiful women, Siddal’s’ history is often rendered synonymous with her sitting as Ophelia in the infamous 1851-2 painting by John Everett Millais (Figure Ten). Her tragically short life mirrors the heroine Ophelia, but this is an injustice to her own writing and artwork she produced . Perhaps the memory of Siddal as a muse known for the visual marker of her long red hair emphasises the beauty standards of the Pre-Raphaelites and suggests auburn hair is in fact an ideal, albeit a tragic one. The male gaze is inextricable within the Pre-Raphaelite Brotherhood, so their contribution to Victorian beauty standards in painting such as ‘The Beloved’, ‘Lilith’ and ‘Lucrezia Borgia’. Their artwork combines myths of redheads with male desire and female power. They perpetuated the stereotype of red hair as beautiful but also laced with scandal, the sitters themselves were often depicted as adulterous, magical or tragic women but were artists themselves in their own right. Their red hair harks back to the religious ideas of sinfulness, where stories of powerful and mythical women were often reinvented with red hair. The male artist, whether it is Rossetti or Titian, had great sway over cultural perceptions of female beauty, and their choice of redheaded female subject is thus telling of a male gaze which has ownership over the vivid red-haired model. Siddal is still remembered primarily as a muse, and the memorialisation of her face and hair in Rossetti’s art displays the gender powerplay at work in constraining the female model within a patriarchal canvas. Red hair, as a visual signifier of beauty or ‘abnormality’, has also been well documented in literature. Traits that we have encountered in the historical redheaded women lend themselves to fiction too, where the most outspoken female characters are often redheads . Some are alienated, such as the plucky orphan Anne of Green Gables who dislikes her red hair so intensely that it is a ‘lifelong sorrow’ (Figure Eleven). She believes in the popular myth that ginger hair is a curse and wishes for it to be raven black instead. This informs us more about beauty standards of the time, so her fixation on her hair is not a vanity but rather ostracization of a young girl in 1880s society. L.M. Montgomery’s novel reflects a misogynistic attitude towards hair colour which can be compared to other similar historical depictions of redheaded women. The character of Anne is made to feel worthless, and her distinctive hair is a visual sign for her that she does not belong. She tells Marilla that ‘red-headed people can’t wear pink, not even in imagination’ (Montgomery 52). Rejected from society as an orphan, her red hair seems to escalate the sense that beauty and belonging is out of reach. She internalises beauty standards that deem her red hair ‘ugly’, which derives from bullying and unfair treatment, and can only become empowering as she grows up and accepts herself (101). Anne’s temper and boldness is fitting with the fiery stereotype, although it is arguable that her outsider status and thirst for justice is the real reasoning behind her personality. Other orphans like Annie and Pippi Longstockings share the same outspoken characteristics, and all triumph in their resilience in the face of alienation. Pippi in particular is an unconventional little girl, she lives alone and has an unexpected superpower of incredible strength. Here, her so called ‘oddity’ is a superpower, as is her red hair: she may stand out but is celebrated for this and overcomes adversity. In fiction, hair holds a history of oppression and power in equal parts, which plucky Anne and powerful Pippi exemplify. If we take Rapunzel as an example, her hair has magical qualities which then aid her escape from evil forces which would keep her and her rebelliously long hair hidden . Connie Koppelman notes that ‘because hair continually replenishes itself, it has been imbued with magical, symbolic power and defined by myth and tradition’, adding to the concept that hair is a powerful symbol of something uncontrollable (87). There is certainly then a myth around hair and superstition which form a part of literary tradition. Elsewhere, Sylvia Plath’ s ‘Lady Lazarus’ dramatically announces that ‘Out of the ash/ I rise with my red hair/ And I eat men like air’ . The reclamation of biblical ideas of sin and hell are reworked in the image of resurrection and female power, the female Lazarus is invincible and vengeful. Here, her ‘red hair’ is part of Plath’s feminist message of reinvention and dangerous natural power, and ideas of fieriness and fire are linked directly to her red hair. Plath plays on religious ideals of good and evil by subverting the parable of Lazarus rising from the dead to present us with a violent feminine rebirth ‘out of ash’ where ‘red hair’ is a form of armour that Lady Lazarus can use to take on patriarchal forces. Red hair can be a cause for celebration and feminism as an act of reclamation, and even in current literature the eponymous Daisy Jones, the rebellious 70s musician , has ‘copper red hair that is thick and wavy and… takes up so much space’ (Reid 3). Jenkins Reid puts scarlet haired women as her heroines, and Daisy Jones and Celia St James, a Hollywood It Girl from The Seven Husbands of Evelyn Hugo , both have charisma and inspire beauty and fear. They are vilified for it but also capitalise on their beauty and art. Emily Dickinson was confirmed to have had red hair, underlining this trend of red hair and uplifting, even riotous feminist role models in literature (Figure Twelve). She described her hair as ‘bold, like the Chestnut Bur’, linking Dickinson’s perception of her hair as a naturally imbued powerful feature with Plath’s later sentiment about fiery Lady Lazarus (Letter 268, Dickinson/Higginson Correspondence: July 1862). These female writers and their characters view red hair as part of their individualism, it is a reason for celebration, not sorrow like the young Anne. A shift in popular opinion in modern day society to celebrate difference which can include ‘fieriness’ as a woman has its origins in historical and fictional women, whose stories must be retold and rethought through the lens of beauty standards. By separating problematic beauty myths from the array of powerful and often misunderstood characters in literature, one can see the literary appreciation for redheads, particularly in feminist narratives, that works against historical prejudice. Is red hair then the age-old scarlet letter, particularly for women? Countless male artists would seem to say this in their paintings, and stereotypes of beauty throughout mythology, history and literature single out red-haired women as extraordinarily fiery and often dangerous. These female figures are often framed from the perspective of the male historian or artist, so bringing them all together suggests that freeing the redhead from archaic stereotypes is much more liberating, instead sharing a wealth of powerful and inspirational women who happen to also have red hair. Like Anne who grows to love her auburn locks as she grows up and discards harmful stereotypes, it is important to understand that these beauty standards are reflected in cultural productions like art and literature often prescribed by men. There is in fact no rarity of flame-haired women in stories to inspire a much more positive and complex understanding of the myth of the redhead, who has been misunderstood under misogynistic ideals and is instead a force to be reckoned with. Further Reading Primary Sources Montgomery, L. M. Anne of Green Gables . Penguin Random House, 2015. Dio. Roman History (LXII.1-2) Plath, Sylvia. ‘Lady Lazarus’, Ariel , 1965. Poetry Foundation , https://www.poetryfoundation.org/poems/49000/lady-lazarus. Reid, Taylor Jenkins. Daisy Jones and the Six . Arrow Books, 2019. Dickinson, Emily. ‘Letter 268’, Dickinson/Higginson Correspondence: July 1862 . emilydickinson.org Secondary Sources Ayres, Brenda and Maier, Sarah E. A Vindication of the Redhead: The Typology of Red Hair Throughout the Literary and Visual Art. Palgrave Macmillan, 2021. Gibson, Rachael. ‘Why are artists infatuated with red hair?’, Art UK , 26th Apr. 2018. https://artuk.org/discover/stories/why-are-artists-infatuated-with-red-hair. Cooper, Wendy. Hair: Society, Sex and Symbolism . New York City: Stein and Day, 1971. Walker, Barbara. The Women’s Encyclopaedia of Myths and Secrets . Castle Books, 1996. Koppelman, Caroline. ‘The politics of hair’, Frontiers, vol. 17, no. 2, pp. 87-88, 1996. Mellinkoff, Ruth. Outcasts: Signs of Otherness in Northern European Art of the Late Middle Ages . Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press, 1993. British Library. ‘Babylonian Talmud.’ British Library website , https://www.bl.uk/collection-items/babylonian-talmund. Roach, Marion. The Roots of Desire: The Myth, the Meaning, and Sexual Power or Red Hair . New York: Bloomsbury, 2005. Gildas. De Excidio Britanniae: The Ruin of Britain . vol. 1. Translated and edited by Hugh Williams. London: David Nutt, 1899. https://books.google.com/books?id=FfsmAAAAMAAJ. Volker, T. The Animal in Far Eastern Art: And Especially in the Art of the Japanese Netsuke with References to Chinese Origins, Traditions, Legends, and Art . Ledien: Brill, 1975.

Glossary:  Junk → classic Chinese sailing vessel, complete with five masts and square sails.  The plunderers of the seven seas are some of the most notorious criminals in history, with records of piracy dating back to Ancient Greece - The Odyssey itself portraying these tales. It is commonly accepted that the 'pirate population' was composed solely by men, with "No Women on Board '' believed to be a common saying amongst sailors in the past. The most well known explanation for this was the notion that women would bring bad luck to the sailors, variations included women seen as 'distractions' to the sailors as well as angering the Gods who could cause rough seas and weather. However, this has since been proved wrong. During the Golden Age of Piracy (17th and 18th centuries) there are several examples of women not only sailing but also commanding fleets. The area of piracy that is most commonly recognised in modern media is in the Caribbean, where the most prevalent years of piracy largely ended in the 1730s. In these years, two women are well known to have captained pirate ships, their names were Anne Bonny and Mary Read. However, the Golden Age of Piracy was not entirely over.  In Chinese waters the 'reign of terror' of piracy persisted until the middle of the 19th century. Amongst the fearsome figures who ravaged the seas was a woman who, while not born or brought up as a pirate or even a sailor, , became the most feared person in China. This was Zheng Yi Sao (can also be found as Cheng I Sao). The woman who married into piracy and commandeered the largest fleet in the world. The literal translation of her pirate name is  'wife of Zheng Yi'. It is believed that her real name was Shi Yang, although it is impossible to say for certain as the primary sources all refer to her by her married name. This article will introduce you to the pirate and her importance to history as well as discuss the overall participation of women within piracy. Zheng Yi Sao lived during the Qing Dynasty. At this time, it was common to see women in roles in seafaring communities in coastal regions, especially if they were part of a seafaring family. Some would work driving small rafts, they would deliver necessary items to those who lived at sea as well as learn the 'domestic arts'. Throughout the Qing Dynasty, China faced many perils. Famine, wars and revolutions were some of the most well known problems. Alongside these, the large presence of piracy along the Chinese coast was a large problem for the government even before Zheng Yi Sao grew into her position as the Queen of piracy - a title granted by historians postmortem.   Researchers know that Zheng Yi Sao married into piracy but some argue it was not out of choice. Certain Chinese tales from how she came into the business vary but they all agree that, before becoming the wife of Zheng Yi, she worked as a prostitute. It is believed that she was born around 1775 in Canton and married Zheng Yi - one of the most powerful pirates at the time - in 1801. Whilst not near the coast, Canton, today known as Guangzhou, became one of the most prominent and convenient riverine ports for both Chinese and foreign ships from the 18th century onwards. There are different versions of how the marriage came to be, ranging from a passive acceptance to the marriage, perhaps for the financial security it would provide, to some suggesting that the captain became infatuated by her when she tried to bite him. However, although  it is popularly accepted by most that she was a prostitute, according to Dianne Murray, there is no actual evidence in primary sources which proves she was a sex worker. This information has been gathered by analysing secondary sources that have been published - many consider piracy as a whole rather than having a specific focus on Zheng Yi Sao herself. Assumptions of prostitution may be an example of misogyny of the historians, or an educated guess of how she would have been most likely to meet him.   During their marriage, they successfully brought together varying different pirate crews into one large confederation. By the time of her husband’s death, their fleet numbered seventy thousand men and 400 junks. They organised their fleet by dividing it between Red, Black, White, Yellow, Blue and Green fleets - and Zheng Yi Sao played a prominent part in the 'business'. Working alongside her husband, she understood the ins and outs of the fleet, how to manage the men, the ships, and the finances. With the expertise and experience gathered during her years - both as a sex worker and wife of the captain - there was no opposition from the crew when, after Zheng Yi's death in 1807, she took over the command. To make sure she had support throughout the fleets, Zheng Yi Sao appointed Cheng Pao, a promising young sailor who had been captured, adopted by the couple and later rumoured to have been a lover of Zheng Yi, as captain of the Red Fleet - the largest of them all. Zheng Yi Sao would later come to marry Cheng Pao to ensure further loyalty.   During the period she was ‘Pirate Queen’ of Chinese waters, Zheng Yi Sao became one of the most feared persons in the South China Sea, threatening not only to the Qing Emperor but also to the members of her own confederation. She developed a code of conduct for the crew, enforcing rules that if broken would be punishable by death. Some of the aspects of the code included cowardice, raping women and taking more treasure than allowed. Her economic and military power rose to such heights that the Chinese government begged both the Portuguese and British navies in 1809 for assistance to attack Zheng Yi Sao's confederation - which was victorious in the battles against the Western forces. After many battles at sea and discussions with their crew, Zheng Yi Sao and Cheng Pao proposed negotiations with the Empire. The negotiations were futile with Cheng Pao's leadership so,  in 1810 Zheng Yi Sao went unarmed and alone to a meeting with the governor-general of the Qing Dynasty - and refused to leave until her demands were accepted.  Zheng Yi Sao not only successfully administered the largest confederation of pirates in the world, but through negotiating their surrender she was able to maintain 80 junks for Cheng Pao for personal use, granting him a high military rank and additional 40 junks for commercial use. The pirates that made up their crew all got positions in the military - the fleet leaders placed in high positions and the remaining pirates serving as soldiers. Zheng Yi Sao lived alongside Cheng Pao and convinced the government to grant her titles that would equal her husband's patents. It is rumoured she started her own brothel which she successfully managed until her death in 1844.  A woman with no military training or formal education, Zheng Yi Sao's impressive achievements in piracy should make her a house-hold name such as Blackbeard. From her tactics in leading the largest pirate fleet in the world to her remarkable negotiating skills that made sure no member of her fleet was to be left in danger of being charged for piracy crimes and were settled in the navy. Whether for the lack of known sources that can assert her incredible feats or simply for the small research done into women in piracy, Zheng Yi Sao was a forgotten woman in history but remains a very important figure to be studied and presented to the public.  Read More about Women in Piracy and Zheng Yi Sao:  → Pirate Women, the Princesess, Prostitutes and Privateers who Ruled the Seven Seas by Laura Soook Duncombe; chapter " The Most Successful Pirate of All Time " p. 237 - 256 →  Flying the Black Flag: Revolt, Revoluition and the Social Organization of Piracy in the Golden Age by Chris Land - https://doi.org/10.1177/1744935907078726 → In the Business of Piracy: Entrepreneurial Women Among Chinese Pirates in the Mid-Nineteenth Century - chapter by C. Nathan Kwan in Female Entrepreneurs in the Long Nineteenth Century  → The Pirates of Macao in Historical Perspective by Robert J Antony → One Woman's Rise to Power https://www.jstor.org/stable/41298765

Glossary Agnatic Primogeniture: inheritance can only pass through the male line. There are different versions of this, however, this primarily means that women cannot inherit, nor can the right of succession be passed through their familial line.  Cognatic Primogeniture: the first born male child will be the first in the line of succession (heir apparent), if there are no male children, then the first born female child will be first (heir presumptive) and they will be displaced if a male child is born. Absolute Primogeniture: the first born or eldest surviving child will inherit regardless of gender. Heir Apparent: denotes the first in line to inherit, they cannot be displaced  Heir Presumptive: denotes the first in line to inherit, they can be displaced, e.g. by a male child. Salic Law: A type of Agnatic Primogeniture in which inheritance could not pass to women in any circumstances, including to male children via women’s lines. Known to each other as Lilibet and Daisy , Queen Elizabeth II and Queen Margrethe II had been the only two Queen Regnants in Europe since Queen Beatrix of the Netherlands abdicated in 2013. With Margrethe’s decision to abdicate on the 14 th  of January 2024, the 52 nd  anniversary of her accession, as announced in her 2023 New Year’s Eve address, Europe, and the world, ceases to have a reigning Queen.  Queenship is a complex and difficult concept to study from a historical perspective and cannot be defined solely within the parameters that it is typically considered. It is often grouped with studies of women’s history more broadly, in ways that studies of kings are not grouped with ‘men’s studies’. This may be attributable to how ‘queenship’ as a concept is defined in studies of historical queens remains problematic. The word ‘queen’ is used to denote a ‘regnant’ (someone who rules in their own right), a ‘regent’ (someone who rules on behalf of another), a ‘consort’ (the wife of a king), a woman who holds similar or equivalent authority (such as an Empress, Pharoah or other leader), and the term ‘queen’ has developed another definition in contemporary LGBT slang. When we use the word ‘queen’ uniformly for all these definitions, even with their secondary definitions, it makes a study of what ‘queenship’ is, how it has developed and what it has meant through history incredibly difficult.  This article asks what does ‘queenship’ mean in the twenty-first century? (I will note here that I focus on European Royal histories and so am primarily relating this discussion to Europe). Historically and still by definition, ‘monarchy’ is the political system through which an individual rules autonomously as sovereign, usually achieving her position via hereditary means. Most monarchies today have minimal actual authority and are heads of state almost entirely in name only.  As we move into a world without these women as queens, I ask what made them so significant, and how can they be used to define ‘modern queenship’?  The modern European monarch is decorative, a piece of national tradition and nostalgia whilst being effectively harmless. Regardless of your political view on modern monarchies, these families, and the institutions they are a part of maintain a significant place in the cultural identity of the nations they preside over. In Britain fascination with royalty is clear in the popularity of historic palaces as tourist attractions, period dramas which focus on the soap opera-like history of the monarchy and a borderline psychotic national obsession with the likes of Harry and Meghan, Kate and William and Princess Diana. Furthermore, eighteen months after her death, Elizabeth II continues to lead polls of the most popular British Royal at 75%. King Charles III placed sixth, at 51%, after Zara Phillips, Catherine, Princess of Wales, Princess Anne and Prince William. Furthermore, since Elizabeth’s death in September 2022 support for a British monarchy has dropped from a 38% positive rating to only 29% as of April 2023, and approximately 62% of Brits currently think that we should continue to have a monarchy whereas at the end of Elizabeth’s life this figure sat at 67%. More indicative of Elizabeth’s importance to the popularity of the British monarchy is that whilst 88% of Brits said that they liked Queen Elizabeth during her reign only 60% had a favourable view of Charles as king. Danish support for their Royals is similarly tied to their matriarch. Under her father’s rule, support for the Danish monarchy sat at 42%. Under Margrethe II, this figure has doubled to 84%. In fact, both women have been so popular, and instrumental in re-establishing the popularity of their respective monarchies that their sons, two long serving princes, King Charles III and King Frederik X face an insurmountable mission; to win over a public which has lauded their mothers and media which has disparaged them.  Neither Queen was expected to accede to the throne when they were born. Elizabeth, born 26th April 1926, was the daughter of a second son, the then Duke of York. Margrethe, born on the 16th April 1940, although the eldest child of the king, was prohibited from the line of succession by something called agnatic primogeniture. This meant that only male heirs could inherit the throne, therefore, Margrethe’s uncle was the heir presumptive to the Danish Crown. At the age of 10, following her uncle’s abdication and father’s accession, Princess Elizabeth became the heir presumptive to the British throne. Elizabeth married Prince Phillip (of Greece and Denmark) in 1947 and the couple settled into a family life as close to normal as being a princess and working Royals would allow. Elizabeth and Phillip had two children, Charles in 1948 and Anne in 1950, before Elizabeth’s accession to the throne. When she became queen in 1952; at the age of 25 she and Phillip were in Kenya, on their way to a Royal Tour in Australia and New Zealand. Elizabeth returned to England and much like in The Crown , a black dress was brought on board the aeroplane for Elizabeth to change into. Her coronation in June of the same year was the first televised Royal Coronation, and began a prevalence of royal celebrity culture in the following decades.  Elizabeth’s reign was colourful, to say the least and it would be remiss not to mention that over the seven decades of her tenure as Queen, there was rarely a peaceful moment. From war, political upset, decolonisation, assassination attempts, an increase in celebrity culture, four Royal divorces and global attention on a family argument. Despite this, Elizabeth was often praised for her personal and royal orderliness. This may be credited to a lifetime of leading by example. Throughout their youth Elizabeth and younger sister, Princess Margaret became sweethearts of the nation. Their father’s choice to stay in London during the Blitz and Elizabeth’s service with the Auxiliary Territorial Service in the Second World War won the family, and Elizabeth in particular lasting popular support. Her demeanour throughout her reign continued this, easily progressing from sweetheart, to mother, to grandmother of the nation. Following her death, news outlets stated that her popularity came from her calm, cheerful and friendly attitude, that she exemplified a British ideology of ‘Keep Calm and Carry On’. This is particularly noticeable in media output during the recent Covid-19 Pandemic. News articles adopted a wartime-like attitude, heralding Queen Elizabeth as a steady lead against uncertainty. Media attention during this period evoked British memories of her youth and the impact of war on British Nationalism. She was for many, the only monarch they had ever had and in terms of British National Identity, even eighteen months after her death, she is synonymous with Britishness.  Queen Margrethe II, as mentioned, was also not the intended recipient for the throne. The House of Glucksberg, ascended the Danish throne in the 1850s due to a law which only permitted male incumbents called agnatic primogeniture (not dissimilar to Salic Law). This was changed in a long process beginning in 1947, when her father inherited the throne and it was clear that her mother, Queen Ingrid, would not have any further children after their three daughters. In 1953 the Danish Parliament passed the law which changed the constitution to allow for cognatic primogeniture, allowing Margrethe to become heir presumptive. Margrethe began playing a more visible role in the Danish monarchy after her eighteenth birthday, chairing meetings of the Council of State in the absence of her father. She went on to study in London, where she met French diplomat Henri de Laborde de Monpezat. The pair married in 1967, and now King, Prince Frederik was born less than a year later, his brother Joachim in 1969. Much like her English cousin, Margrethe ascended the throne with two young children, in 1972 at the age of 31. Her age likely played a significant part in her popularity, much like in Britain, the nation was allowed to enjoy a young family at its head, and Margrethe similarly evolved into the mother, then grandmother of the nation.  Margrethe’s impact on the Danish people’s perception of the monarchy as an institution, is more dramatic than Elizabeth’s. Studies state that throughout her 52 years as Queen, public support for the Danish Royal family has doubled, with approximately 84% of the public supportive of the Queen. Her success can be attributed to her longevity and her consistency in her reign. Supplementary to this, Margrethe is active and she is charismatic. She has forged a career outside of her monarchical identity, something Elizabeth did not. As a visual artist Margrethe has illustrated editions of the Lord of the Rings novels; worked as a set and costume designer; designed the monograms for herself, the Crown Prince and Crown Princess, their familial monogram, and others. She contributed screenplays to several films based on Hans Christian Anderson’s stories. She has also produced church textiles for use in churches in Denmark and other locations, including the Danish Church of St Katharine in Camden, London. Despite their similarities in the longevity of their reigns, their actions as queens have differed. Whilst Elizabeth became Britain, Margrethe maintained an identity separate to the crown. Perhaps this is what allows the latter to step down this weekend.  Like Elizabeth II's, Margarethe's reign has not been entirely smooth sailing. Her husband publicly protested in the decade before his death that he had never been able to use the title ‘king’ or ‘king-consort’, and complained about having to ask his wife for pocket money. He was later given a salary, although he continued to complain to the press. In 2023 she came under fire for the decision to strip her younger son and his family of their ‘prince’ and ‘princess’ titles and the right to be called ‘HRH’. The Crown stated that this was an effort to allow the younger grandchildren to live freer lives, without the pressure of Royal titles as they would not be expected to participate actively in the monarchy. Joachim and his family publicly protested this change, stating that they were unaware of her decision until the news broke in the media. Furthermore, her eldest son, the Crown Prince has a less than positive reputation in Denmark for being somewhat of a scandal, with rumours of affairs being given as a potential reason for Margrethe’s abdication. Conjecture like this isn’t really a helpful debate, but it is worth returning to the question of what do these sons inherit from such queens?  On Elizabeth’s death, some of the earliest news articles questioned if Charles III would remain King, or if he would pass the throne to Prince William. With Margrethe’s abdication hitting the news, the calls have a new sense of urgency, several claiming that Charles stepping down for William and Catherine would be the ‘correct’ thing to do. Negative popular opinion undoubtedly stems from Charles’ years-long affair with his now wife, Queen Camilla, and the tragedy that befell Princess Diana in 1997. Support for Prince William to become king is a sense of public justice for the People’s Princess. The British public is obsessed with the young family. News that the children of the then Duke and Duchess of Cambridge would retain their place in the line of succession regardless of gender was met with significant celebration. Princess Charlotte now retains her place in the line of succession before younger brother, Prince Louis. In Denmark, the new King Frederik X is staring down the barrel of his kingship with several years of media drama in his back pocket. From photographs of him leaving hotels with other women and partying on a yacht with Mexican models, to semi-regular news articles that his wife, Australian born Queen Mary, has seen her life go from a real-life fairy tale to a soap opera. The questions in the media now: is Margrethe’s abdication an effort to save the monarchy by giving in to what Frederick wants (the crown) and force him to ‘grow up’? Will Mary and their young family be able to retain the popularity Margrethe has built up?  To return to the question of ‘what does modern queenship mean?’ the answer unfortunately remains unclear. On paper, they are figurative, ceremonious, largely redundant, and expensive. As both Britain and Denmark mourn the loss of their Queens however, it becomes clear that the figure of the monarch, and uniquely the women who wear the crown, have adopted a sub-human level of laudation and heroism. Time will tell if these women   have redefined modern queenship for the upcoming European Queen regnants. Perhaps their popularity will remain a novelty to Lilibet and Daisy. Future European Queen regnants Both Crown Princess Victoria and her daughter Princess Estelle are in line for the Swedish crown. They will be the fourth and fifth Queens of Sweden, after Queen Margarethe (who also ruled Norway and Denmark), Queen Christina (who abdicated after adopting her nephew and converting to Catholicism), and Queen Ulrika Eleanora. Victoria, born in 1977, had originally been displaced by her brother as heir apparent, however, when absolute primogeniture was introduced in 1979, it was done so retroactively, allowing for Victoria to become Crown Princess at the age of two. Sweden was the first European country to make this change to absolute primogeniture and the only to have done so retroactively. Princess Elisabeth is the heir apparent of Belgium. Absolute primogeniture was introduced 10 years before she was born, marking a significant difference from the country’s previous succession laws, a version of Salic Law, which restricted women from inheriting regardless of any other factor, even if she was the only immediate heir.   Princess of Orange, Catharina-Amalia will inherit the throne of the Netherlands from her father. She will become the fourth queen regnant, after her grandmother, Queen (now Princess) Beatrix, Queen Juliana, Catharina-Amalia’s great grandmother, and Queen Wilhelmina, her great-great-grandmother. Princess Amalia is however, the first of these queens to be born heir apparent, as absolute primogeniture was introduced in 1983.   Princess Leonor of Asturias is the heir presumptive in Spain. Spain continues to withhold cognatic primogeniture, meaning that although Leanor is the eldest of two teenage daughters, legally, she cannot be the heir apparent on the off chance that her father may have a son to inherit. The reasons for a reluctance to alter this part of the constitution is tied to concerns that if absolute primogeniture is introduced it may inspire women who have been excluded from lines of succession outside of the monarchy to retroactively claim inheritance. (Scandalous.) When she becomes Queen, Leonor will be the first queen of Spain since Isabella II, who abdicated in favour of her son after a series of rebellions in the late nineteenth century. Finally, Princess Ingrid Alexandra will accede to the Norwegian throne after her father, the current Crown Prince, Haakon. Absolute primogeniture was introduced in Norway in 1990, 14 years prior to Ingrid’s birth, this was not enacted retroactively however, so her aunt, the elder sister of her father, Princess Martha Louise, remains displaced in the line of succession. Like Margarethe II in Denmark, Princess Ingrid will be the second queen of Norway, after Queen Margarethe in the fourteenth century.  Bibliography ‘Prince Frederik Caught Out!’, Magzter, (24.06/2019), < https://www.magzter.com/stories/Lifestyle/New-Idea/Prince-Frederik-Caught-Out > ‘Queen Mary of Denmark or, was Prince Frederik's affair scandal a masterstroke?’, Saint Joan, (02/01/2024), < https://saintjoan.studio/2024/01/02/mary-queen-of-denmark-or-was-prince-frederiks-affair-scandal-a-masterstroke/ > Elbaum, Rachel, ‘The life and legacy of Britain’s longest-serving monarch’, NBC NEWS, (08/09/2022), < https://www.nbcnews.com/news/world/queen-elizabeth-life-legacy-uk-monarch-rcna17047 > Evenett, Heather, ‘Women, hereditary peerages and gender inequality in the line of succession’, UK Parliament, (03/10/2022), < https://lordslibrary.parliament.uk/women-hereditary-peerages-and-gender-inequality-in-the-line-of-succession/#:~:text=In%202013%2C%20the%20Succession%20to,the%20preference%20for%20male%20primogeniture .?> Hofverberg, Elin, ‘The Future Queen Regnants of Generation Z’, Library of Congress, (07/10/2022), < https://blogs.loc.gov/law/2022/10/the-future-queen-regnants-of-generation-z/ >, Lodge, Matthew, ‘Queen Margrethe's scandal-hit son Crown Prince Frederik will take the throne just months after rumours of an 'affair' with a Mexican socialite rocked the royal household’, Daily Mail, (31/12/2024), < https://www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-12914789/crown-prince-frederik-affair-queen-margrethe-abdicates-denmark-royal-family.html > Maltby, Kate, ‘A difficult lesson in love for poor Princess Mary of Denmark’, iNews, (02/01/2024), < https://inews.co.uk/opinion/a-difficult-lesson-in-love-for-poor-princess-mary-of-denmark-2834012 > Murphy, Victoria, ‘Will King Charles ever abdicate like Queen Margarethe II of Denmark?’, Town and Country, (03/01/2024), < https://www.townandcountrymag.com/society/tradition/a46274541/will-king-charles-ever-abdicate/ > Ritchie, Hannah, ‘Mary, Crown Princess of Denmark: Australia celebrates an unexpected queen’, BBC News, (04/01/2024), < https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-australia-67860144 > Switzer, Charles, ‘THE DANISH CROWN STRIKES BACK: PRINCE FREDERIK 'AFFAIR RUMORS' ADDRESSED IN RARE PALACE STATEMENT’, The Royal Observer, (17/11/2023), < https://www.theroyalobserver.com/p/prince-frederik-affair-rumors-addressed-in-rare-palace-statement > TalkTV, ‘“It Will NEVER Happen” Should King Charles Follow the Queen of Denmark And Abdicate?’, < https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Xl2iRaSphcg > Statistics Smith, Matthew, ‘One year into King Charles's reign, how do Britons feel about the monarchy?’, YouGov, (07/09/2023), < https://yougov.co.uk/politics/articles/46032-one-year-of-king-charles-how-do-britons-feel-ab > ‘ Share of respondents in Great Britain advising they have a positive or negative opinion of Queen Elizabeth II from 2019 to 2022’, Statista, <   https://www.statista.com/statistics/1358323/queen-elizabeth-favorability-rating/ > Serhan, Yasmeen, ‘Do Brits Still Want the Monarchy?’ Time, (02/05/2023), <   https://time.com/6276478/british-monarchy-popularity-explained/ > ‘The Most Popular Royalty’, YouGov, (2023), < https://yougov.co.uk/ratings/politics/popularity/royalty/all > Hill, Amelia, ‘British public support for monarchy at historic low, poll reveals‘, The Guardian, (28/04/2023), < https://www.theguardian.com/uk-news/2023/apr/28/public-support-monarchy-historic-low-poll-reveals > Smith, Matthew, ‘Where does Public opinion stand on the monarchy ahead of the coronation?’, YouGov, (03/05/2023), < https://yougov.co.uk/society/articles/45654-where-does-public-opinion-stand-monarchy-ahead-cor?redirect_from=%2Ftopics%2Fsociety%2Farticles-reports%2F2023%2F05%2F03%2Fwhere-does-public-opinion-stand-monarchy-ahead-cor >

DISCLAIMER: The author of this article, Gemma, uses she/her pronouns and the co-author and enby Director of The HERstory Project, Abby, uses they/them/she/her pronouns.  Identity is something we can all relate to. You may label yourself as a goth, you may be neurodivergent, you may be studious, and you may belong to a religious group or fabulous culture. Whilst, LGBTQAI+ identities are becoming more accepted, there is still a lot of discussion from different world leaders, podcasters, or social media keyboard warriors which believe that people wanting to identify as non-binary means they can identify as “a toaster” or “the hottest man/woman so you must accept that, too!” But where is this anger even coming from? It is not too much to ask, especially in this day and age, to accept and appreciate those who are non-binary and to respect their identity. There is so much variety in biology that leads to making us, us; the way we think, feel, look, and act. So why, specifically, does using they/them pronouns grind people’s gears so much? You may argue “it’s not proper English '' but in fact, the singular ‘they’ is older than the singular ‘you’.    This article will not only explore the development of singular ‘they’ in the English language (and in Swedish), but will also demonstrate through historical events just how old being non-binary is.    First of all, let’s consider gendered terminology.  For many of our gendered terms, how we understand them today was not how they were originally used. “Girl” was a word to refer to any adolescent child. The term really means “brat” which again, in its strictest sense is an adolescent. Gender could then be specified by the use of “knack girl” for males, and “gay girl” for females. Easier gendered terms did exist so the use of this suggests that gender neutrality was an acknowledged fact. Also in Middle English, the word “harlot” now usually used to refer to a sexually promiscuous woman originally meant a young man, knave or vagabond. It later developed into also referring to women, then almost exclusively about women.    The Tales of Caunterbury , known today as The Canterbury Tales  was written by Geoffrey Chaucer between 1387 and 1400. Chaucer is the first author to have written down the word “girl” (as “gyrl”) to refer to a child. The Canterbury Tales is also the first written occurrence of ‘ they’ being used in its singular form. ‘Whoso’  is a character but also refers to the syntactically singular ‘whoever’. “and whoso fyndeth hym out of switch blame, they will come up…” shows ‘Whoso’ being referred to as ‘they’. As ‘whoso/whoever’ is syntactically singular, this naturally makes ‘they’ syntactically singular, too. Chaucer wasn't the only one to use “they” in its singular form. Shakespeare uses it in several of his plays. A prime example is A Comedy of Errors, Act IV, Scene 3; “There’s not a man but doth salute me, as if I were their well-acquainted friend.” In this case, they and their work the same way as he  and his or  she and  hers. This play was written approximately 150 years after Chaucer had used it in his work which shows that it was commonly used and unremarkable. Shakespeare also used “man” to refer to humankind so he has used two gender-non-specific terms.    Yet in the twenty-first century, certain groups and individuals cannot, or will not, accept ‘they/their’ pronouns. How can the past appear more progressive than today?    Both you yourself reading this today and ‘you’ in the singular form existed only after singular ‘they’. In fact, the singular version of ‘you’ remained ‘thou’ or ‘thee’ from the fifth century all the way to at least the fifteenth century.  ‘Thou’ was still in use but became the more informal singular pronoun and ‘thee’ continued to be used as the object pronoun. At this point, ‘you’ or ‘ye’ became the formal subject singular pronoun. In the seventeenth century, ‘you’ had eradicated ‘thou’ and ‘there’ and was being used in all contexts, including singular form. The question and problem of what these terms mean does not seem to arise until non-conformity becomes an issue, or rather, until it becomes an issue that traditionalists cannot ignore. However, an effort for gender neutrality in language is not new or uncommon. Linguists have traced supplementary invented words directly intended to be gender neutral alternatives to the mid-nineteenth century, for example. In more recent history (2012, to be exact), Sweden has introduced the word, ‘hen’. This word is used as a gender-neutral pronoun to avoid using masculine or feminine pronouns and especially to avoid the degrading/dehumanising ‘it’ or ‘det’ in Swedish. ‘Hen’ in this case is not like ‘they’ or ‘de’ but in fact an entirely new pronoun. It was a natural addition considering in Sweden, ‘han’ is ‘he’ and ‘hon’ is ‘she’. The term was initially received negatively, however, according to a 2023 study by Waller and Baraja,  within three years of the word being introduced Swedish people were more prone to using ‘hen’.   Now, let's turn to non-binary and gender non-conforming existence throughout history. Non-binary identities are not recent. They may appear this way as society becomes more accepting and open, similar trends can be seen in conversations of queerness, neurodivergence and chronic illness. Regarding gender, there is a plethora of historical evidence, you simply have to look for it. Ancient deities, such as those who populate Greek mythology, were often depicted androgynously. ‘Goddess’ of Love, Aphrodite (Venus in Roman mythology, Inana in Sumerian, and Ištar in Akkadian) was said to appear to individuals as what they consider to be the most ‘beautiful’. In many depictions, particularly in Cyprus in later Antiquity, Aphrodite is depicted as having a beard. In a notable depiction of her ‘male’ version, she is depicted with a beard and a dress on, lifted enough to show a penis. Seeing this in person was believed to bring good fortune. This later morphed into the ‘God’ Hermaphroditus, the child of Aphrodite and Hermes. Ištar was described as being bearded ‘ like the god Ašur’  but with ‘beard’ (‘ziqnu’) meaning ‘to shine’ however it is clear that worshippers both depicted and described these ‘Goddesses’ as having a physical beard on their face as that is how they thought they would look. What is clear from antiquity sources is that androgynous features were commonly associated with divinity.    Early Greek physicians such as Hippocrates (as in, the Hippocratic Oath) had their own theories and ideas on the idea of intersex and non-binary people. Hippocrates believed that gender falls on a “male-female spectrum” and that hermaphrodites were “the perfect balance between male and female”. Plato saw Aristophanes give a speech about three genders and Plato writes about this in ‘The Symposium’ . There were males, born from the Sun, females, born from the Earth, and androgynous, born from the moon. The androgynous people, being of both genders, had four arms, four legs, two heads and two sets of genitals. The androgynous were powerful and threatening to the Gods. Zeus did not want to destroy the androgynous so he cut them in two. The two halves would search for each other and embrace for eternity once they had found each other. Although a myth, this type of story tells us of just how much people from early history respected this spectrum of genders and created beautiful stories from them. In myth, androgynous people have power and can be reborn from love, in reality, individuals who were gender non-conforming were lauded as the divine.    Non-binary, gender conformity and awareness of this is not restricted to the ancients however, whilst we cannot, and will not anachronistically impose an identity onto people who did not have the language and terminology to define themselves, it is worth identifying individuals who did not identify with their assigned gender at birth. We suggest that you look into these examples in more detail, and see our recommendations for where to start in our reading list at the end of this article!   In the fourteenth century, Eleanor Rykener, also known as John, was arrested for being a ‘crossdressing prostitute’. They dressed as a women, solicited to both men and women and once arrested was defined as male. The Chevalier d’Eon was a French soldier who lived the first half of their life as a man, and the second half as a woman. To gain public and Royal acceptance of her identity, d’Eon claimed (and convinced) the king of France that she had been born female and raised male. Now she wanted to revert to her true sex. It was only upon her death that she was ‘outed’ as what we may call transgender, as when her body was prepared, male genitalia was discovered. Mary Ann Talbot, also known as John Taylor, crossdressed in the eighteenth century in order to become a sailor and a soldier during the French Revolutionary Wars. Staying within maritime history, female pirates and lovers Anne Bonny and Mary Read began their pirating days in male garb, both falling for the other without realising their true genders. Whilst both actually later identified as women and are shown to live as women later on, this is a true example of gender and sexuality non-conformity (the pair appear in the second series of Our Flag Means Death, and are also the inspiration for another non-binary character on the show). Another example of gender nonconformity for romantic freedom is Radclyffe Hall, an English Poet and author who identified as an ‘congenital invert’. Hall’s experiences are fairly unique in this list as they lived as sexologists were beginning to discuss the idea of a ‘third gender’. This ‘third gender’ was typically connected to manifestations of what we might call lesbianism. Hall had preferred the name ‘John’, to their given name ‘Marguerite’ in childhood. Their novel, The Well of Loneliness followed an ‘invert’, Stephen Gordon, an upper-class masculine woman as she explored her gender, sexuality and position. It is believed to be at least partially autobiographical.   So gender non-conformity and identity crises are not a modern phenomenon. Furthermore, non-binary can also be understood as a manifestation of biology. Herculine Barbin, later known as Abel, was a French writer whose experiences with gender and sex exemplify the difficulty of defining these on a binary. Barbin was assigned female at birth, raised female and was actually referred to as Alexina. Later in life she was reclassified under law as male. In her memoir she refers to herself as female and uses masculine and feminine versions of French words interchangeably. In French and other Romance languages (languages evolved from Latin), nouns have a gender, and change form depending on the subject of a sentence. I use she/her pronouns when referring to Barbin to make this discussion clearer. When writing“I was happy about it”, she uses the feminine version “heureuse”, whilst the masculine version is “heureux”. In the sentence, “I had to live there as a stranger” she uses “étranger” (stranger) in the masculine form, the feminine form would be “étrangère”. This suggests that Barbin herself considered her gender to be somewhat fluid.    Barbin became a teacher’s assistant and fell in love with a woman. She was also examined by a doctor, Dr. Chesnet, who claimed that Herculine had female genitalia but no obvious signs of a womb and also showed male body characteristics, including male reproductive organs. This led to the doctor to conclude she was “male, hermaphroditic” which today would be referred to as male pseudohermaphroditism. With this information, and the fact that she was having a relationship with another woman, the court assigned her male. Herculine found this ridiculous but after this, she changed her name and moved away from her lover, Sara. She lived in poverty until her untimely death at the age of 29. Her birthday is the date for Intersex Day of Remembrance (8th November).    It is important to state that intersex people are not inherently non-binary and vice versa, however, intersex people are also gender non-conforming and do have an important place in this discussion. A recent piece of history is the fight to be labelled as ‘X’ rather than ‘M’ (male), or ‘F’ (female). Alex MacFarlane, an Australian activist and intersex person, was born with the chromosome XXY, also known as Klinefelter Syndrome. Alex felt that they felt that they were committing fraud if they were to be assigned either male or female on their birth certificate and their passport, when they were not either. Alex argued their case with the Australian Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade and despite initially being told that the system only understood ‘M’ or ‘F’,  it was decided that Alex was correct. The conclusion was that’ ‘X should and would be used in their passport, but also on passports of those who were also non-binary and those who were intersex and identified as non-binary. Alex’s experiences have highlighted a legitimate legal issue when it comes to gender (and sex) identity.     Acknowledgement and acceptance of intersex, non-binary and other gender non-conforming identities is both important to individuals and to the benefit of wider society. For example, in 2011 and 2022, Antoinette “Tony” Briffa, a third generation Maltese-Australian was elected Mayor of Hobsons Bay, the first person who is intersex and non-binary to be a mayor. Tony was born intersex and identifies as non-binary. Specifically, they were born with partial androgen insensitivity syndrome (AIS). They have worked tirelessly for the LGBTQAI+ community in which their whole Mayoral program focused on. They have also won many awards for their work in the community but also works with children. Tony was even a foster carer before their first Mayoral run. A little like Alex’s situation, they have also had issues with their legal documentation, having three separate birth certificates that have stated female, then male, and now blank. Something Tony would like to see is a birth certificate reflecting “the way nature made us ” . Alex and Tony instigate an important conversation regarding gender non-conformity and emphasise the need for acceptance of gender identity. The world is better off legally and socially when we accept everyone for who they are.    Notable contemporary non-binary and gender non-conforming people are Richard O’Brien, Suzy Eddie Izzard and Divina de Campo. Richard O’Brien** is a British-New Zealand actor, writer and stunt person. They identify as third gender, feeling neither male nor female but uses he/him pronouns. Whilst Richard started out in the film and television industry as a stunt person in ‘ Carry on Cowboy’, his more notable work is writing, composing and acting in ‘ The Rocky Horror (Picture) Show’. ( If you haven’t seen it, you’re really missing out!) This was a musical written for the stage in 1973 and ‘broke’ so many gender norms to create this cult classic. There was cross-dressing, sexual expression, use of the terms ‘ transvestite ’ and ‘ transsexual ’. It also allowed its audience to equally express these things and appreciate this world. I have seen straight men dressed as Dr. Frank-N-Furter but not to make fun of the role, but to have fun in that role. There were so many sexual orientations and gender orientations in a film and theatre production that is now 50 years old. This is all because of Richard O’Brien’s desire to express himself and to demonstrate that gender and sexuality is not black and white, something he realised very early on in life.    Suzy Eddie Izzard was long known as just Eddie Izzard for a long time, working in films such as My Super Ex-Girlfriend, Victoria & Abdul, and Stay Close. They also lent their voice to Cars 2 and The Lego Batman Movie amongst others. What they were most notable for was their stand-up comedy with a long list of stand-up specials. Suzy was also very open with wearing nail polish and make up whilst people still thought of them as Eddie, a comedic man who did the occasional film and television appearance. They self-described in the early 2000’s as an “ executive transvestite” and “ male lesbian” and when asked what people think of this look on an E! News Daily interviews, they stated “ 80% of people don’t give a monkeys  [they don’t care]” and this is very much true, no one seemed to bat their eyelids at it and why should they? What is so loveable about Suzy is their ability to be so unapologetically them throughout their whole life and being so open when people could be so cruel. Eddie added Suzy to their name in March 2023 but has always wanted to be called Suzy since the age of ten. They describe themselves as genderfluid and uses transgender as an umbrella term but has known since the young age of four they were trans. Suzy discusses pronouns saying that “ no one can make a mistake ” and has “ boy mode ” and “ girl mode ” where he/him may be preferred, or she/her  may be preferred when in those respective modes. Recently, they have moved into politics, running as a Labour MP for Brighton in 2023 (but lost the bid- never say never). Looking back on history and political history, people like Suzy need to be in politics as this representation is so important but also continues the conversation where political power is at its strongest. They’re in their 60’s, too (can you believe it?) and it goes to show it is never too late to start being your true authentic self, politician and all.    Divina de Campo shot to fame on the first series of RuPaul’s Drag Race UK after doing drag since 2005. Whilst in Manchester, they regularly visited Manchester’s Gay Village and performed at Kiki (a bar that closed in 2020). As well as their time on Drag Race, they have won Best Performance at the UK Theatre Awards as Hedwig in Hedwig and the Angry Inch as part of Leeds Playhouse and HOME co-production.  They are non-binary and use all pronouns. de Campo is still on the rise and it is exciting to see what they do in the future but the reason they are being discussed here and now is their videos of well researched and thought-provoking videos on how drag queens are not ‘ hurting’  children and those who are saying they’re a danger are the ones who are hurting children (and the country) the most. The messages are important and shut down, frankly, homophobic views. Check out Divina de Campo on Instagram (@divinadecampo)   Gender fluidity comes with being human like breathing, being blonde, having hazel eyes or maybe an extra or missing limb does. Using singular ‘ they/them ’ is not breaking any grammar rules as we have seen from Chaucer and Shakespeare’s works and has existed for nearly eight centuries as written history demonstrates. Therefore, using ‘incorrect grammar’ as an excuse to dismiss a whole gender identity becomes obsolete. Even so, language has demonstrated since the existence of the spoken word that it, too, is fluid and people will use it however they want and however they need. In the words of Miriam Margolyes “ what does it matter to you [what pronouns someone uses]. If you can make somebody happy by calling them ‘they’ instead of he or she, why not do it ?”    *rhyme supplied by @zombiecolour on Instagram, go check out their manicure skills! ** Comments previously made by Richard O’Brien regarding transgender people are thoughts not reflected by The HERstory Project or any of our team   Further Reading  Briffa, Tony. “Cr Antoinette (Tony) Briffa.” Briffa , briffa.org/ . Accessed 23 Nov. 2023.  Clarke, Mollie. “‘I Need Never Have Known Existence’: Radclyffe Hall and LGBTQ+ Visibility.” The National Archives , 29 Apr. 2021, https://blog.nationalarchives.gov.uk/i-need-never-have-known-existence-radclyffe-hall-and-lgbtq-visibility/ . Accessed 10 Sept. 2023.  Davidson, Arnold I. “Sex and the Emergence of Sexuality.” Critical Inquiry , vol. 14, no. 1, 1987, pp. 16–48. JSTOR , https://www.jstor.org/stable/1343570 . DeVun, Leah. "Heavenly hermaphrodites: sexual difference at the beginning and end of time." postmedieval  9 (2018): 132-146. “Eddie Izzard on E! News Daily May 2000.” Edited by EddieIzzardRarities, YouTube , YouTube, 17 Jan. 2010, www.youtube.com/watch?v=xwGFPGtgQoo .  “Eddie Izzard Announces Name She’s Wanted to Use since Age 10, Saying ‘I’m Going to Be Suzy.’” Sky News , Sky, 7 Mar. 2023, news.sky.com/story/eddie-izzard-announces-name-shes-wanted-to-use-since-age-10-saying-im-going-to-be-suzy-12827931#:~:text=Comedian%20and%20aspiring%20politician%20Eddie,being%20a%20%22superhero%20thing%22 .  “The Female Pirates (From an Old Print) [Anne Bonny, 1698-1782, and Mary Read, c. 1695-1721] .” Edited by National Maritime Museum, Royal Museums Greenwich , Feb. 2022, www.rmg.co.uk/collections/objects/rmgc-object-157040 . Fitzpatrick, Katie. “Manchester Drag Queen Surprises Coaches on the Voice UK.” Manchester Evening News , 17 Jan. 2016, www.manchestereveningnews.co.uk/news/tv/the-voice-bbc-boy-george-10737388 . Gilbey, Ryan. “Rocky Horror’s Richard O’Brien: ‘I Should Be Dead. I’ve Had an Excessive Lifestyle.’” The Guardian , Guardian News and Media, 5 Nov. 2020, www.theguardian.com/stage/2020/nov/05/richard-obrien-interview-rocky-horror-trans-crack-stroke-70s .  Gomolka, C. J. “Lost in (trans)lation: The misread body of Herculine Barbin.” Synthesis: An Anglophone Journal of Comparative Literary Studies , no. 4, 1 May 2012, pp. 38–49, https://doi.org/10.12681/syn.17283 .  Harding, James (1987). The Rocky Horror Show Book . Sidgwick & Jackson. pp. 22–23. Heffron, Yaǧmur. “Inana/Ištar (Goddess).” Ancient Mesopotamian Gods and Goddesses , 2019, oracc.museum.upenn.edu/amgg/listofdeities/inanaitar/ .  IMDb. “Richard O’Brien | Actor, Writer, Music Department.” IMDb , IMDb.com , www.imdb.com/name/nm0639782/ . Accessed 5 Feb. 2024.   IMDb. “Eddie Izzard | Actor, Producer, Writer.” IMDb , IMDb.com , www.imdb.com/name/nm0412850/?ref_=nv_sr_srsg_0_tt_2_nm_6_q_Izzard . Accessed 5 Mar. 2024.  “Internet Medieval Sourcebook: The Questioning of Eleanor Rykener (Also Known as John), A Cross-Dressing Prostitute, 1395.” Edited by Paul Halsall, Fordham University , May 1998, sourcebooks.fordham.edu/source/1395rykener.asp .  “Klinefelter Syndrome.” NHS , NHS, www.nhs.uk/conditions/klinefelters-syndrome/#:~:text=Usually%2C%20a%20female%20baby%20has,Y%20chromosome%20denotes%20male%20sex . Accessed 13 Oct. 2023.  Krappe, Alexander H. "The Bearded Venus." Folklore  56.4 (1945): 325-335. Parashar, Arthur. “Suzy Eddie Izzard Loses Bid to Be Labour’s Candidate for Brighton Pavilion at next General Election - the Trans Comedian’s Second Failed Attempt to Stand as MP.” Daily Mail Online , Associated Newspapers, 18 Dec. 2023, www.dailymail.co.uk/news/article-12874007/Eddie-Izzard-loses-bid-Labours-candidate-Brighton-Pavilion.html .  Plato. “The Symposium Section 5: 189c - 193e.” Edited by SparkNotes, SparkNotes , SparkNotes, www.sparknotes.com/philosophy/symposium/section6/ . Accessed 12 Sept. 2023.  TalkTV. “Suzy Eddie Izzard: ‘It’s Suzy or Eddie and You Can Choose... No One Can Make a Mistake.’” YouTube , YouTube, 23 Mar. 2023, www.youtube.com/watch?v=DvaLUmUqsio .  Sale, William. “Aphrodite in the Theogony.” Transactions and Proceedings of the American Philological Association , vol. 92, 1961, pp. 508–21. JSTOR , https://doi.org/10.2307/283834 .  Simon, Rebecca. “Anne Bonny and Mary Read: The Deadly Female Pirate Duo.” History Revealed Magazine , Dec. 2021, https://www.historyextra.com/period/stuart/anne-bonny-mary-read-female-pirates-lives-crimes/ . Accessed 12 Sept. 2023.  Talbot, Mary Ann. "The Life and Surprising Adventures of Mary Ann Talbot, in the Name of John Taylor (1809)." Faculty Publications, UNL Libraries  (2006): 32. Tassell , Nige. “Chevalièr d’Éon: The Tale of an 18th-Century Gender Non-Conforming Spy.” History Revealed Magazine , Aug. 2023, https://www.historyextra.com/period/georgian/chevalier-deon-who-gender-non-conforming-spy/ . Accessed 10 Sept. 2023.  “Winners Announced for UK Theatre Awards 2022.” Winners Announced for UK Theatre Awards 2022 - UK Theatre , 2022, web.archive.org/web/20221121195452/https://uktheatre.org/theatre-industry/news/winners-announced-for-uk-theatre-awards-2022/ .  Xeravits, Géza G., editor. Religion and Female Body in Ancient Judaism and Its Environments . Walter de Gruyter, 2015, Google Books , https://www.google.co.uk/books/edition/Religion_and_Female_Body_in_Ancient_Juda/9hSsCAAAQBAJ?hl=en&gbpv=1&dq=info:5oOR9extnA0J:scholar.google.com/&pg=PA3&printsec=frontcover#v=onepage&q&f=false .

It is very clear that true crime documentaries grasp the attention of nearly everyone around the world. Call it a natural instinct to gather all information to protect yourselves/family or call it morbid curiosity. Some cases stick with you for much longer and the Princes in the Tower  mystery is no exception. It has been accepted for hundreds of years that the princes (Edward V and Richard, Duke of York) were murdered by their uncle and former king, Richard III. There were also perceived pretenders of both Edward and Richard during their time. But now, it seems, they may not have been pretending after all?  From the word go, the documentary felt like this was going to be another attempt to make Richard III look like a saint. To be clear, he still doesn’t look like a saint but to be even clearer, no royalty in history has been a saint. At the heart of the research and documentary is Phillipa Langley was the beating heart of the research and nothing has changed about her passion and dedication to the history of Richard III and the end of the Wars of the Roses. Quite frankly, it is inspirational. What did confuse me was the need for a judge to be involved. Specifically, Rob Rinder (as in THE Judge Rinder). Rob does have first-class honours in Politics and Modern History which is relevant to the premise of the documentary. From my understanding, he was there to add an official and professional voice and this was to play out more like a murder trial or a “cold case”, in Phillipa’s words.  Over 300 people have joined Phillipa’s ‘The Missing Princes Project’ in which many people have been involved in the concoction of criminal investigation and historical research. Maybe it is fair to dub them internet sleuths, to an extent. But the research, clearly, goes deeper.  Rob and Phillipa travel across the continent to bask in findings from hundreds of years ago. The first was a 1487 receipt from King Maximilian I of the Holy Roman Empire for an order of pikes to help the Yorkist invasion of England. The ‘Madame de Dowager’ or Margaret of York, Duchess of Burgundy (the Princes’ aunt and Richard's sister) had sent the men along with these pikes in battle. This evidence corresponds to the first invasion in May 1487  by a supposed impostor of Edward V- Lambert Simnel. Dr Janina Ramirez believes this document is quite compelling and I am inclined to agree. As she says, documents like witness statements, letters, diaries, and accounts of events can be forged or faked but receipts are straightforward and precise. Receipts are not usually something that anyone would bother to fake. It was clear that Margaret had paid money for the pikes and the men. It raises the question of why these princes' aunt would pay so much money to support this random boy if she did not believe that he was not her nephew. Information had been discovered about a coronation that had taken place in Dublin, attended by John de la Pole, in which the supposed Edward V was crowned. Or at least, this is what Matt Lewis (the chairman of the Richard III Society) believes is the correct account. Another historian, Nathen Amen contradicts this and believes this was the coronation of the princes’ cousin, Edward Earl of Warwick. From further research, this was more of a political statement as not one sovereign had been crowned before (or since) in Ireland and was a “remarkable show of defiance by the Anglo-Irish”, according to the historian/archaeologist Christiaan Corlett for Coles Lane Heritage. There is seemingly no doubt that a political event, like a coronation, took place, but to say that it involved Edward is a very large stretch. There is no physical evidence in the documentary to suggest this is the case, either. It is hard to rely on Lewis as a source due to the bias there is towards Richard III and evidence like this would exonerate Richard in the murder of his nephews as it would prove they were still alive. This was probably their weakest argument in the documentary.  Margaret of Burgundy had a retirement palace in Belgium which she had altered through renovations in 1496. Account books from this period showed that there was a new room added and labelled “Richard’s Room” on an arch. Rob Rinder asks “Which Richard?” to which Phillipa exclaims “The younger Prince in the tower”. There is no proof of the younger Richard being this particular prince that is shown or discussed in the episode and this leaves it open to interpretation; could the room have been named after Margaret’s brother, King Richard III, instead?  A discovery made by Nathalie Nijman-Bliekendaal of the Dutch Research Group of a document written by Richard, the younger prince, seemed to really grasp the attention of Phillipa Langley and Rob Rinder. This whole document is approximately ten years of this boy’s life squeezed into four pages. It is in Middle Dutch and, according to Nijman-Bliekendaal, has possibly been translated from French or Latin. The account discusses the involvement of Thomas and Henry Percy in the movement of the princes to and in the Tower. According to the experts, it is true that Henry and Thomas Percy were there and that they were in Richard III’s inner circle. However, using this as an argument to say that this statement was certainly written by one of the princes is a little bit of a leap. It would have been widely known that the Percy brothers were part of Richard III’s inner circle to anyone alive at the time, anyone involved in politics, and a position of power during his reign. The discussion of the document’s original dialect also made it more questionable. Perkin Warbeck was originally from Belgium, a country known for speaking Flemish and French, so for the document to have been written in Middle Dutch but translated from French provides evidence that this was written by Warbeck as an impostor rather than one of the real princes. Understandably, this could be similar to a witness report of what he had experienced from imprisonment to freedom. However, there are too many possible explanations concerning the document that its credibility is limited. Rob Rinder also displays the document to Dr Janina Ramirez who believes the document needs further investigation and that it is very convenient considering the circumstances surrounding it. With it being four pages that supposedly discuss ten years of this person’s life takes away from its legitimacy further as this is almost too condensed.  Other documents are discussed in the documentary such as one held in Dresden, Germany. Professor Henricke Lahemann presents a document from 1493 of a pledge of support to ‘Prince Richard’ to regain the throne of England but to also repay Albert of Saxony’s 30,000 florins within three months of becoming King. The document has seals attached which are royal in origin and contain the ‘R’ standing for ‘Rex’. The document is also signed. The only evidence the document gives to this document legitimately being signed by the real Prince Richard is “it says at the beginning of the document that the signature is on”. It was also written and signed by someone with a confident hand and someone who speaks and writes English. The document clearly holds more weight than that of the previous one found by Nijman-Bliekendaal. Ramirez also views the document and exclaims the seals are “of the time”. Again, there is no further evidence to suggest this was written by the real Prince Richard and there is no handwriting known by Richard that can be compared to this document to add to its credibility.  The last document to be highlighted in this review is the account of the Holy Roman Emperor, Maximilian I and Prince Richard's meeting, written by Maximilian’s French scribe in 1492. Maximilian decided to give his support to Richard’s campaign as Richard had shown signs in the form of marks on his body which people who knew him knew he had. These marks were on his eye, his lip, and his thigh. The Austrian state archive holds this document which is rational as Maximilian was born in Austria and remained there until his death. This was probably the most compelling of the evidence presented. It can also be pulled apart, only slightly. Did they have their ways of faking these marks or could people have just said these marks existed when they did not, just to have a compelling story?  It is hard to accept any of the evidence at face value. What is not in doubt is that the documents originate from the correct period (the 15 th  century) and this is confirmed by experts in the field. However, they come from a period with so much colluding and deceit that there are several different possible reasons for their existence. The research conducted by Phillipa Langley and Rob Rinder is thorough and vast, spreading across the European continent. It involved many experts and a large collective of individuals invested in the project. But I can’t help but feel the bias of a lot of experts in the documentary, not to mention the bias that Langley herself has, considering her part in the Richard III society. The documentary and research could have benefited from being presented and run by an impartial expert to give more credibility. Despite this, it was interesting and did raise a lot more questions on the supposed  murder of the Princes in the Tower.  You can catch The Princes in the Tower: The New Evidence on Channel 4 and Philippa Langley’s Book, The Princes in the Tower: Solving History's Greatest Cold Case, is available wherever you get your books/ebooks/audiobooks.

Glossary McCarthyism: An intense campaign against alleged communists in the US carried out in the mid-twentieth century under Senator Joseph McCarthy. Many of the accused were blacklisted or lost their jobs, although most did not belong to the Communist Party. “I’ve always known I was gifted, which is not the easiest thing in the world for a person to know, because you’re not responsible for your gift, only for what you do with it.” Spoken by Hazel Scott herself, these words encapsulate her greatness as a figure who navigated the realms of entertainment and activism to challenge racial inequality in the United States, but who you have most likely never heard of before.    Born on 11th June 1920 in Port of Spain, Trinidad, Hazel Dorothy Scott was the only child of Thomas Scott and Alma Long Scott. Just four years later, the Scott family moved to the United States, where Hazel would become one of the highest paid Black entertainers, a steadfast advocate for Civil Rights, and the first person of African descent in the USA to host their own television show.   Encouraged by her mother, a classically trained pianist, Hazel’s musical talent blossomed early in her life. At the age of eight, half that of the usual student age requirement, her piano audition for the Julliard School of Music convinced a professor that she was a “genius”. She was awarded a scholarship for private tuition under Professor Oscar Wagner. This was the first of many barriers she would break over her successful career. In 1933, she entered the male dominated jazz scene in New York City, joining her mother’s all-woman band. Two years later, aged only fifteen, she performed her first independent performance at the Roseland Dance Hall, and by age sixteen she had become known for her regular performances on radio shows. Having gained a reputation as a classical and jazz pianist in the city, Scott’s big break came in 1939, when blues singer Ida Cox was unable to appear for her performance at Café Society in Downtown New York. Founded by Barney Josephson, the club had opened its doors a year prior and had quickly become a hotspot for jazz music and progressive ideas. The venue provided a platform for Black artists to perform for racially mixed audiences, challenging the prevailing segregation norms of the time. Discussions on political issues were also held in the venue, and it quickly became a unique and influential institution in New York’s cultural landscape. Left without a performer, and on the recommendation of Jack Gilford who hosted shows at the club and had heard Hazel play at a bar in Harlem, Josephson invited her to audition. Hazel secured the job, and a temporary slot at the club until Ida’s return became a seven and a half year stint, with a 1942 Daily News article dubbing her ‘High Priestess of Hot Piano’ and heralding her ‘an institution’ at the club compared to the venue’s other revolving artists. Over the years at Café Society, her earnings rose from $65 per week to $4000 per week, and by 1945 her annual salary equates to over $1 million today.   Having risen to stardom in New York’s jazz scene, Scott’s fame and experience at Café Society led her to adopt a hard line with regard to venues she would play. She had it stipulated in her contract that she would not play before segregated audiences. Her stance on the issue was uncompromising and led her to walk out of several venues, with one such instance leading to her being escorted out of Austin, Texas, by Texas Rangers for her safety after her refusal to play to an audience separated by ‘Black’ and ‘white’ zones caused a violent uproar. After the incident, she told Time Magazine: “Why would anyone come near me, a Negro, and refuse to sit beside someone just like me?”.  By the mid 1940s, Hazel had made her Broadway debut in Sing Out the News and had started to take on roles in movies, appearing the majority of the time as herself. On the Hollywood scene, Hazel was outspoken about the treatment of Black women within the industry. At the time, it was typical for Black women to be cast predominantly in roles as maids, prostitutes, and slaves. For herself, Hazel had it stipulated in her contract that she would not play such roles. But she also advocated for the other Black women on the sets that she worked on. In her first film appearance, Shout About (1943), Scott played herself and her contract stipulated that she “[wouldn’t] wear a handkerchief or dirty clothes in a film.” On the set of The Heat’s On (1943), Scott refused to work until the eight African American actresses on the film whose costumes included dirty aprons “for a worn effect”, were replaced with clean ones. For her protests, especially as a result of her three-day-long strike on The Heat’s On, she was blacklisted by executives and her Hollywood career was cut short.   Scott’s fight against racial discrimination also extended into a legal case. In 1949, backed by prominent Civil Rights organisation, The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP), she won a racial discrimination federal lawsuit. The case was the first federal lawsuit against racial discrimination in the Inland Northwest and was brought against husband and wife restaurant owners in Pasco for $50,000. Hazel and companion Eunice Wolfe  had been refused service based on their race, with Hazel’s complaint specifying that she was denied service “without any reason whatsoever except she was a Negro.”. The case garnered much media attention at the time. The Evening News reported: ‘Hazel Scott Accuses Coast Restaurant’ and complained that Hazel and her husband, Harlem Congressman, pastor, and civil rights leader, Adam Clayton Powell Jr., were both acting as plaintiffs, despite the fact that he was not present at the restaurant. Scott won the case and gave the money she was awarded to the NAACP.  Just over a year later, in April 1950, the first fifteen minute episode of The Hazel Scott Show aired on the DuMont Network - the first television show in the U.S. to feature a Black woman as its host. Episodes featured several piano performances by Scott, and, from its first broadcast, the show was immensely popular, leading the network to quickly triple the number of weekly national broadcasts. At only thirty years old, Hazel Scott had become a trailblazer in the entertainment industry and a symbol of resistance to racial injustice. However, only one month after her show aired, in the shadow of McCarthyism, Hazel Scott, like many of her contemporaries e.g., Langston Hughes, was declared a communist sympathiser by the House Un-American Activities Committee (HUAC). This followed a claim in Red Channels (a pamphlet compiled by former FBI agents which listed names of individuals in the entertainment industry who were suspected of having communist affiliations or sympathies) that she was affiliated with, participated in, or sponsored numerous communist organisations. The accusations damaged her reputation within the entertainment industry, which was left in ruins when she testified before the HUAC on 22 September 1950. Hazel denied all allegations and criticised the onslaught of false accusations against performers. Exactly one week later, The Hazel Scott Show was permanently cancelled.    In the years that followed, Hazel and her husband separated, divorcing in 1960. In 1957, she moved to Paris with her son, Adam Clayton Powell III. She was able to revive her music career in Europe, although her career never again reached pre-McCarthy heights. Undeterred by being blacklisted in the U.S., Scott continued her advocacy of Civil Rights. In 1963, she marched alongside James Baldwin and many others to the U.S. Embassy in Paris to support Dr. Martin Luther King Jr.’s March on Washington. Scott returned to the U.S. in the late 1960s and died of pancreatic cancer in 1981, aged only sixty-one.  Hazel Scott stood out in mid-twentieth century America for her ability to strike the keys of entertainment and activism in perfect harmony. She felt the responsibility of her gift and with it, she relentlessly challenged racial injustice and inequality. Hazel Scott, among many things, was a pianist, protestor, and pioneer deserving of a place in popular memory alongside widely celebrated figures such as Harry Belafonte and Ella Fitzgerald.   Further Reading   Chilton, K., Hazel Scott: The Pioneering Journey of a Jazz Pianist from Café Society to Hollywood to HUAC (The University of Michigan Press, 2008)   Mack, D., ‘Hazel Scott: A Career Curtailed’,  The Journal of African American History, 91.2 (2006), 153-170   Mack, D., ‘Hazel Scott (1920-1981)’, BlackPast.org , (2007) < https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/scott-hazel-1920-1981/#:~:text=In%201949%2C%20Scott%20won%20a,an%20African%20American%20female%20host > [Last Accessed: 26/01/2024]   McGee, K. A., Some Like it Hot: Jazz Women in Film and Television, 1928-1959 (Wesleyan University Press, 2009)   Regester, C. B., African American Actresses: The Struggle for Visibility, 1900-1960 (Indiana University Press, 2010)   Tucker, N., ‘Hazel Scott: The Gorgeous Face of Jazz at the Mid-Century’, Library of Congress Blogs, (2021) < https://blogs.loc.gov/loc/2021/10/hazel-scott-the-gorgeous-face-of-jazz-at-the-mid-century/ > [Last Accessed: 26/01/2024]

"Well! What could be more unjust! Our life, our liberty, our fortune are no longer ours; leaving childhood, turned over to a despot whom often the heart finds repulsive, the most beautiful days of our life slip away in moans and tears, while our fortune becomes prey to fraud and debauchery. . .” The historiography surrounding the French Revolution often neglects the role of women, primarily due to the male-centric narratives prevalent in contemporary accounts. Etta Palm d'Aelders, a figure less commonly acknowledged, was born in the Netherlands in 1743 and emerged as a noteworthy female agent for the French Secret Service during this transformative period. Having relocated to Paris in the late 1760s, d'Aelders, through well-connected relationships, garnered access to complex social circles. Notably, she was recruited as a spy by Jean Frédéric Phélypeaux, Count of Maurepas, and her espionage activities extended to serving the interests of both her home country and Prussia, reflecting the complexities of her allegiances. Her involvement with the Société Patriotique et Démocratique des Amis de la Constitution, colloquially known as the Club of the Cordeliers, marked a significant phase in d'Aelders' life during the French Revolution. Within this political club advocating democratic principles and the abolition of monarchy, she utilised her platform to champion the cause of women's rights, a radical stance considering the prevailing societal norms. Notably, in March 1791, d'Aelders established the Société Patriotique et de Bienfaisance des Amies de la Vérité, a female counterpart to Cercle social. This organisation aimed to address societal disparities by providing support to impoverished families, establishing educational workshops for young girls, and offering shelter and services for underprivileged women throughout France. Unfortunately, the society's impact did not align with d'Aelders' aspirations. D'Aelders' significance peaked at the French National Convention in 1790 when she delivered a discourse titled 'Discourse on the Injustice Of the Laws in Favor of Men, at the Expense of Women.' In this address, she articulated the challenges faced by women and advocated for their inclusion in political processes. Acknowledging the nuances of her political allegiance, d'Aelders admitted to a prolonged journey towards supporting the French Revolution. She was politically conflicted due to her dual roles in serving the French government and harbouring sympathies for the revolutionaries, her complexity underscores the intricate landscape of the time. Ultimately, d'Aelders faced repercussions for her espionage activities, enduring imprisonment for four years before her release in 1798. Tragically, her death less than a year after her release, with an unmarked grave serving as her final resting place. While Etta Palm d'Aelders may not enjoy the same historical recognition as her male counterparts, her contributions to the feminist movement and steadfast commitment to challenging societal norms should not be dismissed. In an era characterised by upheaval, her advocacy served as a catalyst for progress, leaving behind a legacy that continues to inspire those dedicated to fostering a more inclusive and equitable society. Although the fruition of her aspirations for women's rights took time, her advocacy remains a pivotal moment in the ongoing trajectory towards gender equality in France.

If The Iliad  was written down in the late eighth or early seventh century BCE, then why was it that the first translation into English by a woman only appeared in 2015, by classicist Caroline Alexander? The ostensible absence of women is dispiriting to say the least, but women have in fact been working in translation for much longer than we think. Beginning with Anne Le Fèvre Dacier, a late 17th and early 18th century French classicist, up to Emily Wilson’s acclaimed The Odyssey  in 2018 and The Iliad  in 2023, there is a visible thread connecting these women as translators of much lauded texts.  Whereas the debate around female translators was much more potent at the time of Dacier, when published women writers were rare and often only elite women ‘of letters’, modern day feminist offerings of The Odyssey  and The Iliad  breathe new life into the source material and aim for a broader readership. The place of women translators was up for interrogation in the 18th century, whereas now attention is given to making the classics more relevant to contemporary readers, in Wilson's case by showing how The Odyssey  provides a richly intersectional view of life during the Trojan War (12th or 13th century BCE).  The Iliad  and The Odyssey and Women To begin with, The Iliad  and The Odyssey  are stalwarts of the Western literary canon. The great tales of war and ancient civilisation are reflected in the epic scale of The Iliad , spanning the origins and course of the Trojan War, and The Odyssey , the twenty-year journey home from the war following a central hero, Odysseus. They are both epic poems, written in dactylic hexameter, in Greek, and believed to be written by ‘Homer’, who may have been one or several writers (this debate is known as the Homeric question). Narratively, questions around humanity are central to the conflicts of the poems, and the fervent belief in fate, gods, and mythical creatures ensures the legacy of the poems as fantastical and centred around journeys and family relationships. These epic poems primarily concern men, their acts of violence and the societies they sought to defend, but the female characters in these poems are not one-dimensional. Helen of Troy, Penelope, Circe and Nausicaa for example are all women with certain status, demonised or loved, who occupy a complex role as they are not simply wives or daughters.   Importantly, the work of modern female classicists like Mary Beard, Edith Hall and Nathalie Haynes has aimed to revise a culturally dominant view of Ancient Greece as a solely masculine world, bringing new life to the words of these epics. Therefore, the issue of women and Homer’s poems goes beyond the relatively secondary role they occupy in both epics, since translations by women are part of the broad reassessment of classical studies. And it emerges that an earlier strand in our story of translating Homer takes us back to the 1670s. Anne Le Fèvre Dacier: The first female translator of Homer Anne Le Fèvre Dacier, born c. 1651 in Northern France, is our first heroine, who appeared on the translation scene uninvited and ambitious. Her published defences of her Neoclassical style and choices as a writer reflect the uneasy place she held as an educated and privileged person who was nevertheless going against the norm by entering the male-dominated domain of translation. Taught Greek and Latin by her father, a professor of classics, her education was unusual for this time (Lauren Hepburn). She was invited to contribute to the special editions of Greek and Roman texts prepared for the Dauphin, The Delphin Classics,  in the 1670s (Hepburn). Access to the highest ranks of French society gave Dacier certain freedoms and privileges as an academic, as she was highly educated in a time where classical education was withheld from most women. The publication of The Iliad  in 1699 made Dacier the first woman to translate Homer’s poem into French, followed by The Odyssey  (1708). Alexander Pope, a much better-known writer today, was her contemporary, and Dacier found much to criticise in his translation of The Iliad . He had a respected place in the literary sphere, and so Dacier’s decision to critique him indicated her gutsy aim. Taylor outlines her unique position, as a purveyor of the Ancient school of Classicism, therefore retaining Homer’s style. According to French and Comparative Literature Professor Helena Taylor, ‘Her status as savante, often a contested identity, was accepted’, so the choice of Dacier to publicly critique her male contemporaries underlines her self motivation to carve out a place in the ‘querelle d’Hom è r, an academic debate that was largely comprised of male writers (22). She was keen to quarrel and engage in lively debate which was traditionally masculine, but many critics have rather narrowly viewed her as misguided ‘in her old age’ and unfeminine (24).  Thus she entered into the public debate over women’s status, known as the ‘querelles des femmes’, by publishing Une Défense d’Homère  ( A Defence of Homer ) (1715) and Réflexions sur la Préface de Pope  ( Reflections on the Preface of Pope , 1719).  Erika Harlitz-Kern notes that, ‘In her line-by-line commentary to The Odyssey , Dacier mocks her male colleagues for using bombastic language in their translations in contrast to Homer's straightforward and humble poetry’. Her objective as a translator was to remain faithful to Homer’s style and language, and Dacier outlined how the beauty of his poem lay ‘dans la clarté & dans la noblesse; elle est claire par les mots propres, & noble par les mots empruntés’ (in its clarity and nobility; it is clear through its own words, and noble through the words that are borrowed) (Dacier 7).  In her prefaces Dacier defended the classical style of Homer and argued its superiority to Pope’s modern version; Her own position as a vessel for translation was to adopt a humble position. She wrote that ‘je me sens obligée de le defendre encore contre les reproches d’un homme plus eclairé’(I feel obliged to once more defend my translation against the criticisms of a brighter man) (35). She had to feign humility by claiming her male peers are ‘brighter’, and Marie-Pascale Pieretti underlined that she had to appear self-deprecating due to the contested place of women in the translation sphere: ‘Claiming to restore the integrity of Homer for her contemporaries, Anne Dacier, for example, presents her audacious project to translate the Iliad as writing for her own amusement’ (475-6). Even though Dacier was a ‘savante’, her expertise was still up for debate due to the quarrels surrounding women writers. Pope was reduced to humility in his response to Dacier, saying that ‘ my whole desire is but to pre- serve the humble character of a faithful Translator, and a quiet subject’ (Weinbrot 22). His rhetoric can only portray Dacier in fiery opposition to himself, a law-abiding and humble servant, as Dacier’s outspokenness would frustratingly be held against her as a female translator. Despite staunch criticism, she firmly established herself as a knowledgeable classicist, and brought Homer’s epics to a wider and primarily female readership. She certainly had supporters, and Mary Astell’s ‘A Serious Proposal to the Ladies’ in 1694 praised her intelligence, calling upon her readership to ‘Remember, I pray you… the more modern Dacier!’ (Astell). Dacier then was considered a symbol of aspiration for women to be educated, even ‘modern’, an indicator of her role in the constant fight for women’s voices to be heard in education. Pieretti added   that ‘Dacier had also presented these translations as a way to remedy female readers' lack of access to Greek antiquity’ (477). Dacier’s intellect was iconised in the cartoon Wonder Woman , where she was sketched out as a feminist hero and brought to a new generation of readers in 1951. The artists of Wonder Woman dramatised Dacier’s education as a young girl, with her father remarking ‘a girl with the mind of a brilliant man’, and this satirical representation of an extraordinary talent emphasises how she defied stereotypes of ‘feminine’ knowledge (DC Comics). Moving to the present day, translation studies continue the project of widening the field of translated texts; in particular, the #womenintranslation project established in 2013 encourages publication and recognition for women writers and translators from around the world. Elsewhere, Emily Wilson, the British-American translator widely known for her fast-paced, inventive translations of Homer since she rose to popular attention with her new translation of The Odyssey  in 2017, has commented on the gender bias that is pervasive in the world of classical studies: ‘The legacy of male domination is still with us – inside the discipline of classics itself and in how non-specialist general readers gain access’ as ‘the works of dead, white elite men have largely been translated by living, white elite men’ (Wilson). She calls up people to reclaim these texts, as they should be accessible to all. The Iliad  and its translators The story of The Iliad  attracted women translators who sought to demonstrate the accessibility of Greek classics for a wider readership. Women have great influence in the poem, even if their active voices are not laid out in the lines of the poems. The project of female translators has changed over the ages, and the possibilities of The Iliad  lie in the universality of the story. Translators from Dacier to Emily Wilson have adapted the Greek to reflect societal and political concerns of their era. There is a legacy of male translators which female translators have worked against and subverted by decentering the patriarchal story of The Iliad . Despite the homosocial vision of The Iliad , the irony lies in the fact that this great war between the Trojans and the Achaeans originated in the pursuit of a woman. Achilles identifies Helen as the source of the war in The Iliad , wondering why ‘we, for all our hearts’ sorrow, quarrelled together for the sake of a girl in soul-perishing hatred?’ (Homer 19.58-9). The cause of the Trojan war boiled down to ‘the sake of a girl’ is simplistic but illuminating (19.59). American literary critic George Steiner writes about Dacier’s contemporary, Pope, whose 1715-20 translation of The Iliad  was followed by a succession of notable ‘Homers’: the Modernist ‘masters, such as D. H. Lawrence, W. H. Auden and, supremely, Joyce’, as well as Derek Walcott’s Omeros  (372). Steiner only references Mme Dacier in passing and focuses more attention on the importance of George Chapman’s The Illiads  (1598), so this near-absence emphasises the need to commemorate the important work of female translators and writers (367). A gap of several hundred years separates Dacier’s translation in 1699, and the first English translation of The Iliad by a woman, Caroline Alexander in 2015. Emily Wilson’s translation is the newest, having been published in 2023. The epic poem benefits from such retellings as the role of women in The Iliad  is significant.  Besides line by line translation, fiction retellings by female writers expose aspects of The Iliad  which are pertinent to modern society. Amongst the fictional retellings of The Iliad , Alice Oswald’s poetic reimagining, Memorial (2011) , focuses on the fatalities and brutality of warfare, whilst Pat Barker offer a feminist retelling from the perspective of Briseis in The Silence of the Girls  (2018). These female-centric adaptations of The Iliad  nonetheless represent translations of the poem, but demonstrate the creative potential to modernise the story. Caroline Alexander’s translation has been criticised as too traditional, as she uses free verse so that the lines can replicate the language of the Greek. Sometimes viewed as a more old-fashioned manner of translating, Alexander wrote that ‘the offering of a complete translation of The Iliad  should strive to replicate the Greek original in as many ways as the English language allows’ (51). Her traditional approach can make for a less fluid read in modern English, but as we have seen before with Dacier, when handling such an iconic poem, any translation choices are held up for questioning. The debate is much less gender-based than Dacier’s time, but Alexander’s choice was unique and was founded in her principles as a translator.  Moving onto Emily Wilson’s text, it is the newest in the translations of The Iliad . Naoíse Mac Sweeney noted in her review that Wilson’s The Iliad  avoids ‘an unwarranted glorification of violence on the one hand and tedium on the other’ (Mac Sweeney). The tedium which was criticised in Dacier and even Alexander’s work indicates a key difference with Wilson’s translation. She differs from the two other translators’ intention to retain the original meaning and style as she modernises the poem in places, and like Alexander she uses a freer iambic pentameter which does not limit her lines to an archaic meter. Mac Sweeney also remarks that   a ‘key element in Wilson’s style is the register, poised between the high epic and the everyday’, which is far removed from Dacier’s Neoclassical style. Building upon this, the importance of Wilson’s often colloquial style is paramount as her Odyssey  is refreshing, lyrical and evocative of ancient times but importantly modern. Coupled with the quick pace, Wilson’s translation attests to the transformation from Dacier’s aim to retain Homer’s voice to Wilson’s much more modern voice.  However, Wilson is aware of her place in a long line of translators and the project of women working within the classics. For example, Wilson herself identified several important words in her translation, including a term which Helen uses to refer to herself, ‘my dog-face self’, in Book Three (Wilson 3.223). She noted that a famous American translator before her, Richmond Lattimore, chose ‘slut that I am’ which Wilson avoided (Homer trans. Lattimore). As an example of Homeric insult, this phrase has been translated as all manner of derogatory words typically attributed to women, like ‘bitch’ and ‘wanton’, but the actual Greek is not necessarily interpreted as a sexist insult. Wilson’s   choice to avoid the gendered derogatory insult suggests Helen’s sense of irony towards her role in the war rather than a sexist self-reprimand. It is, in any case, an oxymoron, and so can be interpreted with some freedom. This is not to say that Homer’s texts are free from misogynistic thinking, but that a modern translation can reframe the way in which female characters in particular view themselves and can be presented as three-dimensional beings.  The Iliad’s  many translators have grappled with the key issues around retaining the original style, meter and meanings in their language. Oswald herself argues that female translators feel a ‘strange and potentially productive sense of intimate alienation’ through working with classic texts written by men, and Wilson concurs that ‘female translators often stand at a critical distance when approaching authors who are…male ’ (Oswald, in Gibson 58; Wilson). Alexander and Wilson are aware of the need to carve out a space for women to enter the world of classics, and in this way continue Dacier’s aim to widen the readership of Homer. Their removal from the story is much more due to historical bias against female translators than the tale itself, and so their work adds significantly to the modern critical understanding of The Odyssey  and The Iliad. Emily Wilson’s Odyssey and Atwood’s Penelopiad Emily Wilson’s The Odyssey  in 2018 was the first translation into English by a woman, another milestone in the world of classics, which aims to modernise the story whilst retaining its swift pace.  In Book 22, twelve young women working in Odysseus’ palace are suspected of disloyalty and are killed without any real justification or mercy. Wilson’s translation describes how ‘They gasped, feet twitching for a while, but not for long’ (22.473-4). The cruelty of their killing is emphasised, however the conjunction ‘but’ reassures the reader that they do not suffer for long. Wilson spoke about the translation of violence, particular gender-based acts in the poem, and criticised how ‘contemporary translators and commentators often present the massacre of these women as if it were quite ordinary, and entirely justified’. This moment in the tale requires careful reading in modern day society, as contemporary concerns around gender violence demand that the culture of victim blaming is changed. Wilson’s translation can be read in light of the widely recognised translations, as she uses the words to garner new meaning which sympathises with the women rather than suggesting culpability. Looking back at another famous translation, Alexander Pope went further by offering a misogynistic outlook of the enslaved women in The Odyssey . In his 1726 translation, he used defamatory language, calling the slave-girls the ‘nightly prostitutes’ and ‘base revilers of our house and name’ . He overtly demonises the women, portraying them as immoral and explicitly to blame. His version may be a product of his time, but nonetheless presents a merciless approach to the women in the story. Wilson stated that she wanted to ‘bring out the horror of what happened to these women’ and restore dignity to them, which is evident in her brutal yet emotional treatment of the enslaved girls’ unjust killing. She refers to them as girls, not creatures, and frames this scene as a crime, not a punishment, which is specifically inflicted by men in power over women. A focus on the female experience in The Odyssey  also  is something which Wilson aimed to draw out. There are independent female characters like Circe the sorceress (popularised recently by Madeline Miller’s Circe ) and Calypso the goddess of the sea; as well as Athena, goddess of war and wisdom, who has significant power over Odysseus’ journey home. Wilson remarked that ‘ The Odyssey  traces deep male fears about female power’ (Wilson). Typically, the dangerous female character has supernatural qualities, and Wilson’s interest in male anxiety brings a much more intersectional view of The Odyssey  as a text that is aware of gender power dynamics. Atwood’s The Penelopiad (2005)   is a gift of Homeric storytelling, transforming The Odyssey  by retelling it through the perspective of the ill-fated young girls. The novella’s title uses the name of Penelope, the wife of Odysseus, to emphasise the female perspective. Atwood’s narrators are a Greek chorus, a typical narrative technique within Ancient Greek plays, and choosing the twelve murdered servant girls as the chorus restores their voices as well as reinforcing the sense of inescapable fate as women trapped in a patriarchal world. Penelope can be defined in many terms, a long suffering wife, a clever but manipulative woman, or an  entrapped wife trying to fend off male suitors. Her decision to weave a web before declaring a new husband symbolises her shrewdness, as she undoes her weaving every night to keep her suitors at bay. Wilson lists Atwood’s The Penelopiad  among the greatest classical reimaginings by women, which subvert and even resist classic translations. The Penelopiad has been performed onstage in several productions and contributes to the ever-growing genre of Ancient Greek retellings which shed light on the female experience. Wilson’s translations are thus part of a contemporary shift in classical studies to expand the world of the epic poems to consider marginalised figures and interrogate gender roles. Much can be learnt from the women who have taken on the challenge of translating The Iliad  and The Odyssey . From Dacier’s pioneering work shedding a light on the limits of female education, to Wilson’s modernising translation and the retellings in contemporary fiction, the female translator’s voice has surmounted obstacles surrounding these classics. The role of a female translator can bring to life the nuances of warfare and de-centre the story from a purely phallocentric world and have much to contribute to the ever-diversifying world of classicism. Dacier's defence of her place in the classics world made her a trailblazer, and as classical studies have become more inclusive, female translators like Alexander and Wilson have followed in her stead. The very existence of a translation by a woman, my study has shown, presents a milestone in translation, indicating the gender disparity in the classics. Female translators have thus been breaking down the barriers to Homer’s texts for hundreds of years. Bibliography Primary Sources Astell, Mary. ‘A Serious Proposal to the Ladies, For the Advancement of Their True and Greatest Interest’ (1694), Early Modern Women on The Fall: An Anthology, ed. Michelle M. Dowd and Festa, Thomas, Arizona State University, 2012, https://asu.pressbooks.pub/early-modern-women-on-the-fall/chapter/a-serious- proposal-to-the-ladies/#footnote-155-1. Atwood, Margaret. The Penelopiad. Canons, 2018 Dacier, Anne Le Fèvre. ‘Preface to L'Iliade d'Homère’ (1711), French Translators, 1600-1800: An Online Anthology of Prefaces and Criticism, no. 17, June 2008. Scholarworks @ UMass Amherst, https://scholarworks.umass.edu/french_translators/17 . Homer, The Iliad, trans. Caroline Alexander. Ecco Press: New York, 2016. Homer, The Iliad, trans. Emily Wilson. WW Norton & Co: New York, 2023. Homer, The Odyssey, trans. Emily Wilson. WW Norton & Co: New York, 2018. Homer. The Iliad Homer. The Odyssey Oswald, Alice. Memorial. Faber & Faber, 2011. The Odyssey by Homer, trans. Alexander Pope (1715-1720). The Odyssey of Homer, trans. Richard Lattimore. HarperCollins, London, 1967. Secondary Sources Alexander, Caroline. ‘On Translating Homer’s Iliad’, Dædalus, the Journal of the American Academy of Arts & Sciences, vol. 145, no. 2, 2016, pp.50-58. Gibson, Richard Hughes. ‘On Women Englishing Homer’, Arion: A Journal of Humanities and the Classics, vol. 26, no. 3, 2019, pp. 35-68. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/10.2307/arion.26.3.0035 . Harlitz-Kern, Erika. ‘What happens when women translate the Classics’, The Week, Jan 2020. The Week, https://theweek.com/articles/872174/what-happens-when-women- translate-classics. Hepburn, Lauren. ‘Anne Le Fèvre Dacier: Homer’s First Female Translator’, Peter Harrington Gallery, Nov. 2019, https://www.peterharringtongallery.co.uk/blog/anne-le- fevre-dacier-homers-first-female-translator/. Logan, William. ‘Plains of Blood’, New York Times, Dec. 2012. NYT, https://www.nytimes.com/2012/12/23/books/review/memorial-alice-oswalds-version-of- the-iliad.html. Mac Sweeney, Naoíse. ‘The new ‘Iliad’ translation is a genuine page-turner’, The Washington Post, Sept. 2023, https://www.washingtonpost.com/books/2023/09/21/iliad-translation- emily-wilson-review/. Pieretti, Marie-Pascale. ‘Women Writers and Translation in Eighteenth-Century France’, The French Review, vol. 75, no. 3, Feb. 2002, pp. 474-488. JSTOR, https://www.jstor.org/stable/3132846 . Radzinski, Meytal. Women in Translation movement. WIT, https://www.womenintranslation.org/ . Steiner, George. ‘Homer in English translation’, The Cambridge Companion to Homer, ed. Robert Fowler, Cambridge UP, 2004, pp. 363-375. Cambridge Core, https://www.cambridge.org/core/books/abs/cambridge-companion-to-homer/homer-in- english-translation/B50623B7EB448B51A4F9AA9F22CE7639. Trélat, Fabienne. ‘Saumur. Anne Dacier, femme savante protégée de Louis XIV’, Le Courrier de l’Ouest, Sept. 2021. Ouest-France, https://www.ouest-france.fr/pays-de-la- loire/saumur-49400/saumur-anne-dacier-femme-savante-protegee-de-louis-xiv- 60a5bbca-17a0-11ec-9f73-6fd91ee9f0dd. Weinbrot, Howard D. “Alexander Pope and Madame Dacier’s Homer: Conjectures Concerning Cardinal Dubois, Sir Luke Schaub, and Samuel Buckley.” Huntington Library Quarterly , vol. 62, no. 1/2, 1999, pp. 1–23. JSTOR , https://doi.org/10.2307/3817806 . Accessed 13 June 2024. Wilson, Emily. ‘A translator’s reckoning with the Women of the Odyssey’, The New Yorker, Dec. 2017, https://www.newyorker.com/books/page-turner/a-translators-reckoning-with-the- women-of-the-odyssey. Wilson, Emily. ‘Emily Wilson on 5 crucial decisions she made in her ‘Iliad’ translation’, The Washington Post, Sept. 2023, https://www.washingtonpost.com/books/2023/09/20/emily- wilson-iliad-translation-terms/. Wilson, Emily. ‘Found in translation: how women are making the classics their own’, The Guardian, July 2017. The Guardian, https://www.theguardian.com/books/2017/jul/07/women-classics-translation-female- scholars-translators.

Within abolitionist and early feminist history, especially Black feminist history, many recognise a single name: Sojourner Truth. An African American abolitionist as well as civil and women’s rights activist of the nineteenth century, her May 1851 speech, now synonymous with the phrase ‘Ar’n’t I a woman?’ and the modernised ‘Ain’t I a woman?’, is one of the most famous and widely recognised abolitionist and women’s rights speeches in American history. Sojourner Truth’s life spanned some of the most tumultuous years of American history, from the end of the Revolutionary War to the beginning of Reconstruction. The formative years of her life occurred within the system of slavery in the US and shaped the direction of her subsequent activism and advocacy. Born into slavery in New York as Isabella Baumfree to parents Elizabeth Baumfree (the daughter of enslaved peoples from Guinea) and James Baumfree (an enslaved man from Ghana), Truth’s childhood was categorised by upheaval and abuse, and she was sold under slavery four times (at the approximate ages of four, 11, 12 and 13 years old). She suffered harsh physical labour, punishment and sexual abuse, and whilst enslaved, she had five children: James (who passed away in childhood), Diana (the result of rape by her enslaver), Peter, Elizabeth, and Sophia, who she had with her husband, an enslaved man named Thomas.   At the turn of the nineteenth century, the State of New York began the process of enacting laws to abolish slavery, although, the act was one for gradual abolition. As a result, children born to an enslaved mother after July 1799 were declared legally free after a period of indentured servitude. Specifically, they were declared free when male children reached the age of 28 and female children reached the age of 25. Those, such as Truth, who were born prior to July 1799, were redefined as indentured servants and could no longer be bought and sold but were required to continue their unpaid labour. Truth’s enslaver, Dutch-American John Dumont, promised her freedom in July 1826 "if she would do well and be faithful" but this promise was later broken and her freedom revoked.   In late 1826, however, Truth took freedom into her own hands. She escaped with her daughter Sophia, leaving her other children behind. The pair found refuge with the Van Wagenen family in New Paltz, New York and the Van Wagenens bought the pair’s freedom from Dumont when he later came looking for them. The family also aided Truth in suing Dumont, who had sold a then five-year-old Peter into slavery in Alabama after the passage of the anti-slavery law, making the sale illegal. In 1828, Truth filed a lawsuit with the New York Supreme Court for his return and became the first Black woman to successfully sue a white man in the United States.   In 1829, Truth relocated to New York City where she took up domestic work for the following 11 years. She worked for multiple evangelical preachers, including Elijah Pierson. As a child, her mother had spoken to her of God and Truth herself had had ‘talks with God’. Despite these early religious engagements, she is believed to have experienced a ‘spiritual awakening’ whilst living with the Van Wagenen family and at the start of June 1843, she changed her name from Isabella Baumfree to Sojourner Truth, later being quoted to have explained the name change:         "The Lord gave me ‘Sojourner’ because I was to travel up an’ down the land, showin’ the people their sins an’ bein’ a sign unto them. Afterwards, I told the Lord I wanted another name ‘cause everybody else had two names, and the Lord gave me ‘Truth’, because I was to declare the truth to people." Her new name signalled her calling as a preacher and abolitionist.   Truth had never learned to read or write and her first language was Dutch, a reflection of her prior enslavement. Despite this, she serves as a figure who, through her activism, broke with conventional understandings of intellectuality during the period. Not only did her race and gender starkly contrast with popular understandings of who could be considered an intellectual, but combined with her inability to read or write, she strongly defied stereotypes.   Following her ‘spiritual awakening’ in 1843, Truth travelled throughout the Northeast, preaching at camp meetings and drawing in large crowds when she spoke and sang. A year later, she joined the Northampton Association of Education and Industry, a utopian abolitionist community in Massachusetts which had been founded two years prior with the aim of forming ‘a better and purer form of society’. The community supported the immediate abolition of slavery, the equality of all genders, races, and religions, citizenship for free Black Americans, as well as pacifism. During her time working and living with the community, Truth met prominent abolitionists such as Frederick Douglass and William Lloyd Garrison. She is believed to have given her first anti-slavery speech the same year that she joined the community.   However, her activism did not only take the form of speeches. Truth utilised song as a means of advocacy. One song performed at an abolitionist convention in the 1840s, called 'I Am Pleading for My People', incorporated the following lyrics: "I am pleading for my people, a poor downtrodden race Who dwell in freedom’s boasted land with no abiding place I am pleading that my people may have their rights restored, For they have long been toiling, and yet had no reward" And "I am pleading for the mothers who gaze in wild despair Upon the hated auction block, and see their children there." Through the song, Truth advocated for those who were enslaved in the United States by highlighting the hypocrisy of the US as ‘the land of the free’. Notably, she introduced a gendered dynamic, perhaps drawing on her own experience as a mother within the system of slavery, to emphasise the particular suffering enslaved mothers experienced.   The speech that has become synonymous with Sojourner Truth’s name, however, was delivered in 1851 at the Women’s Convention in Akron, Ohio, and was one which she gave whilst on a lecture tour of central and western New York. Known as the ‘Ar’n’t I a woman?’ or ‘Ain’t I a Woman?’ speech, Sojourner Truth’s speech on women’s rights to the convention has been the subject of controversy in the historical world.   The Sojourner Truth Project reports two principal versions of the speech: one transcribed and published in 1851 by Marius Robinson (who attended the convention) and one written 12 years later by Frances Gage (one of the convention’s organisers). It is Gage’s later version which introduced the now famous ‘and ar’n’t I a woman?’ line, a question which neither Robinson nor any newspaper coverage of the speech in 1851 reported. As well as this inconsistency, Gage’s version has been highlighted by historians for employing distinctly more colloquial language than other records of the speech. Despite these differences, the key points of the speech run parallel in each version: "I have as much muscle as any man, and can do as much work as any man. I have plowed and reaped and mowed, and can any man do more than that?" (Robinson’s version) "-And ar’n’t I a woman? Look at me. Look at my arm. I have plowed and planted and gathered into barns, and no man can head me." (Gage’s version) The importance of Sojourner Truth’s speech to the convention is therefore rooted in the way it highlighted the unique position and struggles of African American women in the nineteenth century. As well as her abolitionist efforts and campaigning for women’s rights, historians have recently highlighted Truth’s efforts to recruit Black soldiers for the Union Army and obtain food and clothing donations during the Civil War, work which resulted in her meeting with President Lincoln in 1864.   As an intellectual and activist, Sojourner Truth stands out for her early intersectional politics and abolitionist efforts. Her work continues to have contemporary relevance in political affairs; in 2013, when the House passed the Violence Against Women Act after months of debate over its expansion to include protections for Native American women, immigrants, and LGBT+ people, amid the floor debate, Representative Gwen Moore utilised the famous question attributed to Truth, stating: "I would say as Sojourner Truth would say: Ain’t they women? They deserve protections." Several statues have been erected to commemorate the life and activism of Sojourner Truth, including one in Florence, Massachusetts near the former site of the Northampton Association of Education and Industry. Sojourner Truth also features in the Women's Rights Pioneers Monument in Central Park, New York City. Installed in 2020, the sculpture was the first in the park to depict historical women.   Further Reading:   BlackPast, ‘Sojourner Truth (CA. 1797-1883)’, (2007): https://www.blackpast.org/african-american-history/truth-sojourner-isabella-baumfree-ca-1797-1883/   David, L. and Stetson, E., Glorying in Tribulation: The Life Work of Sojourner Truth (Michigan State University Press, 1994)  The Sojourner Truth Project, ‘Compare the Two Speeches’: https://www.thesojournertruthproject.com/compare-the-speeches/ Truth, S. and Gilbert, O., The Narrative of Sojourner Truth   Zackodnik, T. C., ‘”I Don’t Know How You Will Feel When I Get Through”: Racial Difference, Woman’s Rights, and Sojourner Truth’, Feminist Studies, 30.1 (2004), 49-73

Introducing two heavyweights in the museum world: The Egyptian Museum in Cairo and the Grand Egyptian Museum. Housing vast collections of Ancient Egyptian heritage, these museums are two greatly different spaces, but both aim to showcase predynastic and Dynastic ancient Egypt. Having visited both relatively recently, I aim to explain the differences and similarities between the ideas behind the two museums, all while focusing on the amazing spaces, objects, and curatorship within, and our own experiences and highlights. Visiting in January 2024 during the presumed height of the tourist season for Egypt, my two friends joined me experiencing all the highs (and lows) of the museums. The Egyptian Museum in Cairo The pink hued building, built in 1902 by Italian architects, was designed by a Frenchman following an international competition. Previously, the growing Egyptian collection was housed in the Cairo Citadel, to the east outside the city walls. This museum houses the largest collection of Egyptian artifacts. The building’s lengthy history has seen turmoil, especially in the 2011 Arab Springs riots. Artifacts were stolen and destroyed including wooden statues of Pharaoh Tutankhamun, luckily most have been recovered in subsequent years. Located in Tahrir Square in Downtown Cairo, the museum is accessible by foot or tour bus. Walking was difficult as we had to cross between four and six lanes of busy traffic and move through various security checkpoints. Opening hours of 0900-17:00. The prices are localized for Egyptians and foreigners but we paid 230 EGP for a student ticket – the equivalent of around 6 GBP. We entered at 13:30-13:45 and left at closing time. With over a 100 exhibition halls, there is a lot to see. The museum itself is located over two floors with multiple storage rooms and large anterooms, with many a spare corner to stash artifacts. Museum entrance The main attractions are the entrance hall, housing pyramid capstones, granite sarcophagi, and the statue of Queen Tiye (wife of Amenhotep III, mother of Akhenaten and grandmother of Tutankhamun). Another large gallery upstairs is dedicated to Tiye’s parents; mother; Thuya and father; Yuya where we saw their mummified bodies and personal items once entombed in the Valley of the Kings. This was a very well curated exhibition, a highlight of our visit, with the showcase focusing on Thuya and Yuya’s lives and what each material item meant, the ill curatorship did not heavily impact the artifacts. Speaking of, the poor standard of the building showed raw and unfinished walls and posters in the gallery, along with a dirty floor.  The entire building was packed with all manner of artifacts, although most were not labeled. Some were, but illegible due to the weathered paper. In my opinion, over half of artifacts are inaccessible to those who do not understand Arabic . This means a tour or guide is necessary for some parts of the museum. Accessibility is varied – there are maps and lifts but they are run down. Benches are hard to come by if you want a seat and it was crowded in the main galleries. Main Exhibition hall The museum is in slight disrepair, which is extremely sad to see, as architecturally, the building is beautiful and almost glows pink in the sunlight. Sand covers the floor, cracks and potholes are littered around the second story, and windows are yellowed, with the glass ceiling panes threatening to collapse. However, the main draw for this museum is the Tutankhamun exhibition on the second floor. It is astounding to see the famed treasure trove in person! This was the most polished aspect of the museum as it was expertly curated. We thoroughly enjoyed our time in the tiny gallery space even though it was very crowded. We did not expect to see Tutankhamun’s possessions as it was not advertised significantly nor accurately; we were under the impression the collection had been moved to storage and only replica items were on display. Once inside, it was magnificent! Excitingly, some of the oldest objects of ancient Egypt are housed here, including the oldest life sized human statue in the world.  The gift shop is questionable, as there was not much except a few pop-up stalls. We did not buy any souvenirs.  The cafe was poor; it was a single pop-up stand outside serving beverages. However, we had a lot of fun visiting, taking pictures, and saw some of the most famous ancient Egyptian artifacts including the Narmer tablet, Stele of Akhenaten, and Tutankhamun’s golden mask.  Most of the collection was being packed up at the time of our visit, and stored for the relocation to the Grand Egyptian Museum. In spite of its evident flaws, if you are a first-timer in Cairo then this is a must-do attraction. The Grand Egyptian Museum in Giza  The Grand Egyptian Museum (GEM) began as a competition won by Heneghan Peng Architects of Ireland in 2003. It is a feat of modern design and clearly aims to impress visitors with a huge open atrium and gardens, however the museum had major funding and building setbacks. Parts are still under construction so only the atrium and main hall, plus a handful of shops, are open to the public. Although most of the artifacts from the Egyptian Museum in Cairo have been moved into storage at the GEM, none of the exhibition halls are currently open to the public. Once completed, it will be the world’s largest dedicated archaeological museum at 872,000sqft of exhibition space. Located 1.2 miles from the Giza pyramid complex, the museum is accessible by vehicle only. We had to take a taxi, due to it’s location in the center of a motorway junction. The museum is unconventional in shape and size, akin to a spaceship or train station. I especially love the entrance/exit as you walk under a golden pyramid.   The triangular tiles, glass walls, and ceilings, and the way the light illuminates the statue of Ramesses II in the atrium, create a truly spectacular space. A great feat of engineering; light, bright, clean. When we walked in we were blown away by the openness and style of the modern museum, having never experienced a museum like it before. The ceiling can be likened to that of the British museum in terms of how much natural light the atrium gets during the day. My photos did not do the GEM justice. Opening hours of 09:00-18:00. At the time of writing  (February 2024), tickets are expensive – with no student ticket for internationals. We paid full price to only visit the atrium and immersive Tutankhamun exhibit. This is part of a trial run for visitors (as the main museum galleries are yet to open – presumed opening in Spring 2024, but more likely 2025). So tickets prices will change. Expect to pay up to or over 30 GBP to visit all areas of the museum once open. However, for what you will get once open, the GEM is worth the ticket price. We entered around 14:30 and left after closing time. 131 foot ceilings of glass and concrete, rising to 165ft on the outside, this is, by far, the biggest museum entrance hall I have visited! In comparison, the British Museum’s domed, glass entrance hall is 85 feet from floor to ceiling.  The first main attraction is the statue of Ramesses II, visible from every angle in the main atrium due to it being 36ft. The statue was moved from Ramesses Square in Cairo in 2006, and erected in the atrium in 2018 after a period in storage. There are huge gardens surrounding the museum and, although these were not open when we visited, we could watch the construction taking place. The gardens contain a high level of curatorship to help the flow of visitors. At the top of the main staircase, after you pass through a second set of ticket barriers and over a water feature, you get a perfect view of all three Pyramids of Giza. Lining the staircase are exhibits detailing the life of Egyptian Pharaohs and Gods, in chronological order of the Egyptian Dynasties. We found the steps hard to see as they are the same colour of exhibit bases, and would be tough to navigate for those with impaired vision.  At the time of writing, the entire collection of Tutankhamun is due to be moved for the Spring 2024 opening. However, There is an impressive immersive experience explaining the life of Tutankhamun, which is a must-do activity! Very colourful and sensory, good for families with children. We enjoyed the whole experience.  There are some cafes and restaurants which are expensive but offer decent food options. The building, which also functions as a shopping centre, features several gift shops, where we all purchased quality souvenirs. Overall, it was a wonderful experience seeing the building of new exhibition spaces. A unique day out, but accessing the museum and exiting back to a hotel is tough if you do not know a taxi company. Differences :  Clearly these two museums have significant differences.  I prefer the traditional aspects of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, but appreciate the modernity and ideas behind the Grand Egyptian Museum. The GEM is very neat, clean, and modern, where every aspect is organized and clear. Toilets being fully accessible. Whereas, the Egyptian Museum in Cairo is dusty, even dark in some places, with not much space to move throughout in the height of the tourist season. The building has run out of space to house artifacts, even though most have already been moved to the GEM. The halls are crowded and artifacts are placed in mismatched time periods in randomly allocated spaces, corners, and in badly signposted store rooms, of which we accidentally entered. Toilets are not signposted clearly and look like semi-permanent portaloos. The aim with the Egyptian Museum in Cairo was to create a space for the Department of Antiquities to document, store, and display the artifacts of Egypt. Howard Carter used the museum as a storage facility when removing items discovered in Tutankhamun’s tomb in 1922. - fulfilling the museum's aims. The aim of the GEM is to continue this, but modernize, adapt, and move away from the turmoil of the previous museum’s history. It wants an international appeal, which might be too ambitious for the Egyptian Government to pull off. The financial cost currently outweighs the benefits and profit, however, the GEM is predicted to generate 55 million GBP a year so will in theory pay itself back, but it is a risky venture. The impressive space of the GEM fully allowed our group the luxury of avoiding a few large tour groups which dominated the atrium of the Egyptian Museum in Cairo. However, tours skipped the more hidden corners. There were a few benches and seats in the exhibition spaces, but if you want a longer sit down, visit the cafes. We spent a solid 3 + hours inside the Egyptian Museum in Cairo, thanks to the plentiful exhibition spaces and thousands of artefacts to see. We also spent 3 + hours in the Grand Egyptian Museum simply due to its size, spending an hour walking the cafes, gift shops, and other attractions the museum has to offer was rewarding for the effort we put into getting there from Downtown Cairo. Once fully open, you would have to visit over multiple days because of its size. Are they both worth it? Yes. They offer similar experiences of the same ancient empire, yet with hugely differing ideas of curatorship and the impact of tourism, making both experiences incredibly exciting.  Similarities: Both museums are card payments only, a surprise to us considering Egypt heavily relies on cash. Taxis were checked by security guards for authenticity, and to protect tourists from scams.  My friends and I loved the GEM, the staircase being a firm favourite. Equally, we loved the Egyptian Museum in Cairo because of its lengthy heritage and revered place in international tourism. Visiting was at the top of our agenda, making the trip on the first day we were in Egypt.  Both museums have vast collections and exhibition halls. Both have a great ticket price for what you experience inside. And both present a space for education and conservation. However, the GEM takes the win with a secure and modern space for better conservation, with a highly polished atmosphere and a will to excite its visitors with bigger collections. We enjoyed the duality of both these museums.  Miscellaneous visiting notes: When the GEM fully opens (now planned for 2025), the Egyptian Museum in Cairo will become, essentially, obsolete – but still absolutely worth the visit depending on what collections they display, if any. Although the old museum will become a dedicated learning and educational center with an attachment for Universities and schools. We recommend buying a souvenir from the GEM rather than the Grand Egyptian because of the quality and variety in the shops.  The GEM was empty. We were the only Western tourists visiting that day. My friend almost stood in the GEM water feature by the statue of Ramesses II. I am unsure of the health and safety regulations surrounding this feature as there are no barriers, so small children may fall in, bags might be dropped, or pushchair or wheelchairs could potentially slip off the edge.  The security checkpoints are quick to get through, just a bag search. However, you cannot bring binoculars into the GEM, which we found strange.  Take note of the tour guides offering services and be wary of scam deals and overpricing in both museums. Wear sensible footwear for the miles of walking you will undoubtedly cover.  I thoroughly enjoyed my many hours in each museum, I really felt enveloped inside ancient Egypt and all it has to offer as a tourist and ancient history enthusiast. Accreditations: The HERstory Project The Egyptian Museum in Cairo and the Grand Egyptian Museum Emily Knight Morgan Edwards Museum Spotlight

For many of us in Britain, an Anglo-centric education has positioned Britain and the USA at the forefront of the women’s suffrage movement. However, the pioneering success story instead lies across the globe in New Zealand, a quarter of a century before Britain granted women the vote. In 1893, the Governor of New Zealand signed the decree that would make the nation the first self-governing country to grant women the vote. The demand for the vote had been brewing since the turn of the 19th century. With the rising prominence of university, medicine and new professions, young middle and upper class women began to challenge the more traditional roles thrust upon them and develop a political awareness. When in 1852, the New Zealand Constitution Act provided parliamentary franchise to European, Māori and mixed-race men who met the property ownership criteria, a focus of this political awareness started to take shape.  With more opportunities coming their way the women began to yearn for political equality, and with this, a determination to use it for the benefit of moral reformation. Moral reformation was a common thread throughout many of the global suffrage movements in the 19th and 20th centuries, with temperance being a central focus. One of the major groups involved in the right to vote in New Zealand was the Women’s Christian Temperance Union (WCTU).  Whilst still around today, it has now evolved from encouraging abstinence to mobilising the organisation of women across New Zealand. Involvement in the WCTU introduced many women to the idea of suffrage, and a belief that social and political mobilisation was possible if this was granted. The WCTU spearheaded the suffrage movement in New Zealand, but also collaborated with other non-abstinence organisations to attempt to widen the appeal of the vote from 1892.  There were many iconic figures involved in the New Zealand suffrage movement but perhaps the most prominent of these is Kate Sheppard. Sheppard was a member of the WCTU, English-born and Scottish raised, who moved to New Zealand in the 1860s. She was crucial in early feminist movements such as dress reform for women and promotion of physical activity at a time when ‘lady-like’ behaviour was expected. In her time as leader of the suffrage campaign, she wrote pamphlets, organised meetings, and collected petitions. Her actions offered an opportunity to project a voice for change in wider society. The WCTU’s seven-year-long campaign culminated in 13 different petitions presented to parliament in 1893; combined they listed 31,872 signatures, making this the largest petition ever collected in Australasia. Opinion on women’s suffrage was divided over the course of this prominent year. Much of the political opposition had connections to the alcohol trade and worried about the impact voters would have on profits, should their concerns about the effect of alcohol on women and families be made commonplace. Personal agendas within the Government further slowed down the journey to the vote; Prime Minister John Ballance allowed his own theoretical support of the movement to be overshadowed by the risks that came with it. If he gave women the vote, it gave them the option to turn on him, and vote for his opponents. Between the indecisiveness of major political figures, and the strength of the liquor trade’s connections within government, legislation that would have otherwise granted electoral rights to women was sabotaged in 1891 and 1892. When Ballance died in 1893, suffragists fought even harder against the threat of the opposition with his successor, Richard Seddon. Despite attempted interference from Seddon and his counsellors, the bill was passed through the legislative council on September 8th 1893. More discourse followed but against all odds, Governor Lord Glasgow signed the bill on September 19th, passing it into law. From this point forward, all women who were 'British subjects' and aged 21 and over, including Māori, were now eligible to vote. Congratulations from across the globe demonstrated the effect of New Zealand’s success on the rest of the world. Providing a new hope in the fight for women’s political equality, Sheppard and her army of suffragists were at the forefront of the first self-governing country to grant women the right to vote. While their journey to political equality was over, the significance of this was, and still is, huge. New Zealand’s suffragists provided a boost to global morale not only to Britain and the USA, but also offered a vast range of new opportunities for the women of their own country. Unfortunately, despite New Zealand being ahead of the game for electoral equality, other political milestones took a slower turn, such the first female MP not being elected until 1933. This compared to Britain’s first female MP, elected in 1918. 2023 marked 130 years since the signing of the bill and it is just as celebrated now as it was back then. This year, the white camellia represents the movement, and has been used across the celebration. The artist Vanessa Smith designed a flower, adorned with 130 petals to mark the 130 years since the milestone. The camellia remains a tribute to all women who have contributed to the progress of women’s rights, both past and present in the country. The life and success of the women’s suffrage movement in New Zealand still shines bright over a century later.  Bibliography Raewyn Dalziel, ' New Zealand Women's Christian Temperance Union', New Zealand History, (1993), < https://nzhistory.govt.nz/women-together/new-zealand-womens-christian-temperance-union  > 'Women and the Vote', New Zealand History, < https://nzhistory.govt.nz/politics/womens-suffrage  > 'Women’s Suffrage in Aotearoa New Zealand', Ministry for Women, < https://women.govt.nz/about-us/history-womens-suffrage-aotearoa-new-zealand#:~:text=On%2019%20September%201893%2C%20Governor,to%20vote%20in%20parliamentary%20elections >